eChapters

Fruit ripening is a highly coordinated, genetically programmed and an irreversible phenomenon involving a series of physiological, biochemical and organoleptic changes which finally lead to the development of a soft edible ripe fruit with desirable quality attributes. Ripening is the process where changes take place in the fleshy fruit and make it edible. It represents the unique coordination of developmental and biochemical pathways leading to changes in colour, texture, aroma and nutritional quality of mature seed-bearing plant organs (Barry and Giovannoni, 2007). Physiologically mature fruit is transformed from an unfavourable state of firmness, texture, colour, flavour and aroma to favourable state for consumption. It is the final phase in the development of fruit and involves major metabolic changes and it is normally an irreversible event. The ripening phase does not start until the fruit has developed considerably from the tissues present at anthesis and it is difficult to stimulate ripening before it attains maturity. The ripening changes which are common during softening are accumulation of pigments and changes in cell wall.

Fruits provide a suitable environment for seed maturation and often a mechanism for the dispersal of mature seeds. By anatomical definition, fruit is a mature ovary, and therefore, includes carpel tissues in part or in whole. However, many fleshy fruit species develop mature fruit tissues by including extra-carpellary floral components. The examples include strawberry, pineapple, mulberry and pome fruit (apple, pear, etc.) in which the receptacle, bracts, calyx and floral tube (the fused base of floral organs), respectively constitute majority of mature fruit tissues. Even species with fruit derived from carpel tissue exclusively can display a range of developmental programs, spanning the relatively uniform single expanded carpel or drupe of stone fruit to the differentiated carpel tissues, giving rise to the peel (flavedo) and multi-carpel flesh as observed in citrus and banana. Although genetic selection of agriculturally valuable fruits is being done since centuries but most of the information about how fruits develop, how this development is coordinated with embryonic development and seed formation and the molecular, cellular and physiological events that control fruit growth and differentiation are still lacking. In the following sections, the various aspects controlling fruit setting and development have been discussed.

Many horticultural and forestry plants don’t come true-to-type when propagated by seed owing to cross pollination and highly heterogeneous nature of fruit crops, in general. As a result, when such plants are grown, the individuals differ in morphological as well as fruit characteristics as compared to mother plant. Though, it was a common practice in old days to establish new orchards with seedling plants, but now with the development and standardization of different vegetative propagation techniques, such plantings are avoided. In modern system of crop production, instead of a single tree derived from seed, use of composite plants (consist of usually scion and rootstock, joined together by budding or grating) is in vogue. This could have been possible by growing interest of mankind in vegetative means of plant propagation.  In asexual propagation, vegetative parts of the plant are used for propagation.  It is practicable because all the living cells of a plant have a capacity to regenerate into a full plant under favourable environmental conditions.

Presently, potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the world’s third most important crop, after wheat and rice. Tubers of the potato plant have been used as a primary nutritional staple and a carbohydrate source in many diets and as the basis for a variety of processed products throughout the world. Owing to climate change, potato production is expected to fall in the coming decades, predictions asserting that global potato yields will decrease by 9–18% in most parts of the world. Availability of new varieties less sensitive to these environmental cues is thus crucial to overcome the negative effects of global warming. Of various developmental phases, tuberization is the most sensitive stage in potato limiting its climate associated geographical distribution and actual yield.  Hence, understanding the tuberization process becomes even more important in the face of changing global climate. The induction of tuber formation is a key developmental transition for the production of potatoes.  Understanding the regulation of tuber induction is essential to devise strategies to improve tuber yield and quality.

1. Introduction

Food poisoning is a major concern for both the food industry and consumers inspite of different preservation practices some species of pathogenic bacteria causes food spoilage leading to outbreak of illness. Spices and herbs have been added to food since ancient times, not only as flavouring agents, but also as food medicine and as food preservative (Nakatani, 1994). Additives need for food preservation may be harmful to human health and has led to use of natural products especially plant extracts, their essential in food preservation.

More than 90 percent of the cases of food poisoning each year are caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerea, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Bacillus cereus and Entero-pathogenic Escherichia coli. These bacteria are commonly found on many raw foods and cause severe disorder in humans. Spice posses anti adhesive properties that prevent the microbe to the host tissue, thus preventing the primary infection. It also possesses a rich array of phytochemical and a rich source of antioxidant. Some studies claim that the phenolic compounds present in spices and herbs might also play a major role in their antimicrobial effects.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are rich source of novel drugs that forms the ingredients in traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates, bioactive principles and lead compounds in synthetic drugs (Ncube, 2008).  In recent years, antibiotic resistance has become a global concern. This drives the need to screen medicinal plants for novel bioactive compounds as they are biodegradable, safe and have fewer side effects (Prusti et al., 2008). Higher plants, as a source for new potential drugs is still largely unexplored and screening of active agents helps to design the lead molecule later in drug development.

Aegle marmelos(L.) Corr., belongs to the family Rutaceae, and is popularly known as Vilvam tree (Tamil) (Gamble, 1935; Mathew, 1983). It is an indigenous tree found in Iran, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, Bangladesh and most of Southeast Asian countries (Singh, 2009).  A. marmelos has been used from time immemorial in traditional systems of medicine for relieving diarrhoea, dysentery, stomachic, digestive, astringent, peptic ulcer and respiratory infection (Nadkarni, 2000). The fruit, leaves, bark and root are edible and possess medicinal values. The unripe dried fruit used to be astringent, digestive and stomachic, the ripe fruit is aromatic, cooling and is used as laxative.

1. Introduction

Seaweeds are the extraordinary sustainable resources in the marine ecosystem which have been used as a source of food, feed and medicine. The number of natural products isolated from marine organisms increases rapidly, and now exceeds with hundreds of new compounds being discovered every year (Chapman and Chapman. 1980, Cheennubhotla et al., 1986; Chennubhotla et al., 1987; Faulkner, 2002; Proksch and Muller, 2006). Several products of algal origin such as alginate, carrragenean and agar as phycocolliods have been used for decades in medicine and pharmacy (Fitton, 2006). Seaweeds are considered as source of bioactive compounds and produce a great variety of secondary metabolites characterized by a broad spectrum of biological activities.  Seaweeds contain various inorganic and organic substances which can benefit human health (Kuda et al., 2002). The in vitro studies on green, brown and red algae confirmed the following potential activities viz., cytostatic, antiviral, antihelminthic, antifungal and antibacterial (Lindequist and Schweder, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Dhargalkar and Neelam, 2005; Huang et al., 2005; Gonzalez del Val et al., 2001; Espeche et al., 1984).

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are nature’s priceless gift to human. They have been used all over the world for the treatment and prevention of various ailments particularly in developing countries where infectious diseases are endemic and modern health facilities and services are inadequate. Medicinal principles are present in different parts of the plants such as root, stem, bark, heartwood, leaf, flower, fruit or plant exudates (Thenmozhi et al., 2010). Phytochemicals from medicinal plants serve as lead compounds in drug discovery and design (Sofowora, 2006).

Free radicals are chemical species which contain one or more unpaired electrons, due to which they are highly metastable and cause damage to other molecules by extracting electrons from them in order to attain stability (Chakraborthy and Ghorpade, 2010). Hyper-physiological burden of free radicals causes imbalance in homeostatic phenomena between oxidants and antioxidants in the body. This imbalance leads to oxidative stress that is being suggested as the root cause of aging and various diseases like diabetes, cancer, and liver damage (in severe conditions like cirrhosis and hepatitis) (Wagh et al., 2010).

1. Introduction

Plant-derived substances have recently become of great interest owing to their versatile applications. Medicinal plants are the richest bio-resource of drugs of traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates and  chemical entities for synthetic drugs Medicinal value lies in certain chemical substances that have its physiological action on the human body. Many indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants. The general techniques of medicinal plant extraction include maceration, infusion, percolation, digestion, decoction, hot continuous extraction (Soxhlet), aqueous-alcoholic extraction by fermentation,  counter-current extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound extraction (sonication), supercritical fluid extraction, and phytonic extraction (with hydrofluorocarbon solvents). For aromatic plants, hydrodistillation techniques (water distillation, steam distillation, water and steam distillation), hydrolytic  maceration followed by distillation, expression and enfleurage (cold fat extraction) may be employed.

Abstract

During inspection of several lily plantations under cover in different districts of Himachal Pradesh plants with severe disease symptoms were observed. The affected plants showed a progressive loss of vigor, were stunted and had a severely malformed leaves. These symptoms were observed on large scale mainly in oriental lily hybrids ‘Acapulaco’. The plants were suspected to be infected with phytoplasma, the presence of which was demonstrated with fluorescent microscopy (DAPI stain). The phytoplasma etiology was further confirmed by conducting nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays using universal primer pairs P1/P7 followed by R16F2n/R16R2, which amplified a fragment of phytoplasma 16SrDNA. This is the first report of phytoplasma infection in lilies identified by molecular assays from India.

The preservation of food in common salt or in vinegar is known as pickling. It is one of the most ancient methods of preserving fruits and vegetables. Pickles are good appetizers and add to the palatability of a meal. They stimulate the flow of gastric juice and thus help in digestion. They are prepared with salt, vinegar, oil or with a mixture of salt, oil, spices and vinegar.

Pickles:- Pickles are a product which is prepared by using the common salt or vinegars of fruits and vegetables. It is a good appetizer and adds to the palatability of a meal. It’s also help full to stimulating the flow of gastric juices and thus helps full indigestion. Pickles are mainly preserving by salt, vinegar, oil and it can also be preserved by the mixture of salt, spices, vinegar and oil.

Ingredient of 1kg mango pickles: Mango piece 1kg, salt 150g, fenugreek powder 25g, turmeric powder 15g, nigella seed 15g, red chilli powder 10g, clove headless 8 number, black pepper 15g, cumin 15g, cardamom large 15g, aniseed powder 15g, asafoetida 2g and mustard oil 350ml.

Pickles known to be good appetizers, aid digestion and pallate are edible products preserved and flavoured in a solution of common salt and vinegar. Spices and oil may also be added. There are a number of pickles very popular in India i.e. mango pickle, cauliflower pickle, lime and lemon pickles, ginger chilli pickle etc. But, some pickles like Sauerkraut are not very common in India but are very popular in European countries.

Pigeon pea seeds discovered in historical tombs suggest it was farmed in Egypt circa 2000 BC. Vavilov (1939) concluded that India is the primary origin of the cultivated pigeon pea due to the wide diversity of germplasm available. It’s a crucial location in rain-fed agriculture. It is grown on 4.92 million hectares worldwide, including 3.58 million hectares (72.7 percent) in India alone. Although the crop is planted in 22 nations, it is only cultivated in considerable areas in a handful of them. Its seeds have become a widespread food in Asia, Africa, and Latin America since its domestication in the Indian subcontinent at least 3,500 years ago. It is an important source of protein for the Indian subcontinent’s people and is consumed on a big scale in South Asia. India is a major producer of pigeon peas. Kenya, Malawi, Uganda, Mozambique, and Tanzania are major producers of pigeon pea on the African continent.

Origin and history: Pineapple is considered as one of the most popular tropical fruit, and is known as “Golden Queen” all over the globe. It can be grown as mixed crop in most of the orchards and also as hedge plant and as a pure crop. It is drought tolerant and suitable for marginal lands. Pineapple contain an enzyme Bromeline and volatile compound three methyl propionate ester. It is widely cultivated throughout the world and country is like Malaya, Hawaii, Brazil, South Africa, Singapore, Mexico and India. In India it is cultivated in eastern part of the country like West Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Mealy bug: Dysmicoccus brevipus: Pseudococcidae

Mealy bugs are major pests of pineapple in India. They can attack roots and aerial parts. Colonies of reddish –white mealy bugs infest roots, crown, and fruits and suck sap. The leaves change in colour from green to red or pink and the margins reflect inwards and leaf tip starts drying. Severely infested plants become stunted and bear only small fruits. The attacked plants should be drenched with an insecticide solution of contact insecticides like Quinalphos or Dichlorvos or Chlorpyriphos@ 0.05% concentration, in between the fronds and allowed to drip down to reach the roots. Addition of liquid soap @4 ml per litre or 4 g of soap powder per litre is a must to get the best results.

Planning

A greenhouse, is basically the purpose of providing and maintaining a growing environment that will result in optimum production at maximum yield. The agriculture in the controlled environment is possible in all the regions irrespective of climate and weather. It is an enclosing structure for growing plants, greenhouse must admit the visible light portion of solar radiation for the plant photosynthesis and, therefore, must be transparent. At the same time, to protect the plants, a greenhouse must be ventilated or cooled during the day because of the heat load from the radiation. The structure must also be heated or insulated during cold nights. A greenhouse acts as a barrier between the plant production areas and the external or the general environment.

Site selection and orientation

A greenhouse is designed to withstand local wind, snow and crop loads for a specific cropping activity. In this way, the structure becomes location and crop specific. The building site should be as level as possible to reduce the cost of grading, and the site should be well aerated and should receive good solar radiation. Provision of a drainage system is always possible. It is also advisable to select a site with a natural windbreak. In regions where snow is expected, trees should be 30.5 m away in order to keep drifts back from the greenhouses. To prevent shadows on the crop, trees located on the east, south, or west sides should be at a distance of 2.5 times their height.

Planning

• Generally 10% of the total area is left aside for building, roads, paths, tube-well, channels etc.
• Windbreak is very important aspect of orchard planning.
• Windbreak plants are planted in North–Wset direction.
• The market should be vicinity of orcharding site. It reduces transportation.
• The site of orchard should not be a wind or flood prone area.
• The soil should be neutral in reaction (pH 7).
• As per climate adaptability, fruit plants have been classified into three groups; tropical, sub–tropical and temperate types.

Before beginning the actual work on the establishment of a Fruit and Vegetable Processing Industry the following points should be considered:

Availability and possibilities of obtaining Funds: Investment of own money or obtaining loans from banks etc.

The scale of industry (Large, Small, Cottage or Home): Has to be decided based on availability of raw material, funds availability, land, labour and other resources.

The location: The processing unit should be located near to the actual production site of raw material so that the transportation costs of high bulk raw materials is reduced. There is no fun or justification of establishing apple processing industry in Lucknow or Bangalore and mango processing industry in Shimla as the related raw materials would have to be transported through long distances.

Site: Site selected in the location should be sunny area free from dampness and sufficient space for waste disposal should be ensured.

20.1 INTRODUCTION

With rapid increase in area under micro irrigation, now fertigation is getting momentum in many states in the country. At present, most of the soluble fertilizers are imported in the country. Hence, these are very expensive and beyond the reach of common farmers. It is interesting to record that for number of nutrients, which are becoming constraints in most of the Indian soils, soluble formulations have yet to be developed. This calls for some alternative options. As an alternatives liquid manures like cow urine, biogas slurry, or fermented manures etc can be sprinkled on the soil, applied with irrigation water or diluted and sprayed as foliar fertilizers (Frank et al; 2005).To our understanding, organic fertilizers /organic liquid manures referred now as bio-enhancers are essential to maintain the activity of microorganisms and other life forms in the soil. These are prepared locally, can resolve number of apprehensions and will be helpful in boosting production and mitigating number of nutritional disorders in most of soils and crops. It is interesting to record that these can be prepared at the farm with some infrastructure facilities and hands on training. Most of these formulations are used through irrigation. These organisms (bacteria and moulds) improve the soil health by solubilzing the complex organic substrates into simple forms and make it available to the plant, resulting in increased productivity. If these are integrated with micro irrigation techniques after proper filtration their efficacy can further be improved.

Cow dung and urine are important component in organic farming. Cow dung is rich source of microbial consortia Actinomycetes, which are helpful in control of many plant diseases. A potential species Streptosporangium psedovulgare of Actinomycetes and four strains of Bacillus subtalis have been identified at CISH, Lucknow (Pathak et.al., 2009).These showed anti pathogenic potential against anthracnose gummosis, stem end rot and dieback pathogens. These were observed to attack mycelia cell wall and finally the host cell degenerates completely. Organic liquid manures play a key role in promoting growth and providing immunity to plant system ( Sreenivasa et al., 2010).