eBook Chapters

Introduction

Oilseeds are the third most important group of crops after cereals and pulses in India. These are important food crops which also find their place in industrial use. Oilseeds have been an integral component of Indian agriculture since time immemorial. On the oilseeds map of the world, India occupies a prominent position, both in terms of acreage and production. India is the 4^th largest edible oil economy in the world and contributes about 10% of the world oilseeds production, 6-7% of the global production of vegetable oil, and nearly 7% of protein meal. The oilseeds production statistics of the world for the year 2016-17 includes a production of 549.98 million tonnes from an area of 234.57 million ha with the productivity of 2.34 tonnes/ha. The top countries include U.S.A., China and India with U.S.A. ranking first in all area, production and productivity of 39.25 million ha, 126.94 million tonnes and 3.23 tonnes/ha, respectively. Next is China which ranks 2^nd in production and productivity but 3^rd in terms of area; the area, production and productivity being 22.72 million ha, 54.92 million tonnes and 2.42 tonnes/ha, respectively. India ranks 2^nd in terms of area, i.e. 33.83 million ha but 3^rd in both production and productivity being 36.32 million metric tonnes and 1.07 tonnes/ha respectively.

Introduction

India has very old and long tradition of flower cultivation. With changing life styles and increased urban affluence, floriculture has assumed a definite commercial status in recent times. Improved communication facilities have increased their availability in every part of the country. Floriculture in India is being viewed as a rapidly growing industry. In India, at present total area under flower crops is about 2,33,000 ha with production of about 17.29 lakh tonnes of loose flowers and 76732 lakh  number of cut flowers (NHB database, 2013).The important floricultural crops in the international flower trade are rose, carnation, chrysanthemum, gerbera, gladious, gypsophila, liastris, bird of paradise, orchids, anthurium, tulip, lilies, etc. All the flowers and ornamentals are the most perishable commodities needs special care during harvesting, handling, storage and transport. The losses can be both, quantitative as well as qualitative, which result in loss in terms of monitory value.

Low bioavailability of phosphorus (P) in soils is one of the major limiting factors influencing crop production throughout the world. Plants, however, are known to possess potential adaptive mechanisms at morphological, physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels to overcome P deficiency (Vance et al., 2003). Such adaptive mechanisms mainly include an increase in total root length and root hair growth (Bates and Lynch, 2000), enhanced organic acid (Singh and Pandey, 2003), acid phosphatase (Pandey, 2006) and ribonuclease (RNase) secretion into the rhizosphere (Hocking, 2001), increase in expression of proteins such as phosphatase, inorganic phosphate (Pi) transporter, RNase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPcase) in plant tissues.

INTRODUCTION
 
The form genus Sclerotium was described by Saccardo (Saccardo, 1913) to include fungi that produce sclerotia and had sterile mycelia. Several fungi were inc1uded in this genus, and all were characterized by production of small, dark brown or black spherical sclerotia that were internally differentiated into a rind, cortex and medulla. Several plant pathogenic fungi with this sclerotial type and with no known sexual or conidial state were placed in the genus Sclerotium. However, as the teleomorphic states were discovered, affinities to the Basidiomycotina (Punja, 1988) or Ascomycotina (Krause and Webster, 1972) were established for some members of the form genus.

Abstract

Potassium (K) is the third most essential macronutrient element for plants. More than 98% of K in agricultural soils are remained as insoluble organic and inorganic compounds or complexes that are unavailable for plant uptake. Nutrition of crop plants are heavily relied on application of expensive inorganic chemical fertilizers, which is a potential cause of environmental pollution. An eco-friendly alternative strategy for plant K nutrition could be the application of K solubilizing bacteria (KSB) as biofertilizer. Plant and soil-associated bacteria from diverse taxonomic genera such as Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Acidithiobacillus, Paenibacillus, Flectobacillus, Arthrobacter, Enterobacter, Sphingomonas, Paraburkholderia etc. have shown high K solubilizing activities and promote plant nutrition in K deficient soils. The mechanisms involved in their activities include acidolysis, chelation, exchange reactions, and enzymatic degradation of insoluble K minerals and other K complexes. However, inconsistency in the efficiency of KSB-based biofertilizer for crop production in diverse ecological settings is still a big challenge. Recent genomics, post-genomics and CRISPR-Cas genome editing approaches seem to be useful for a better understanding the underlying mechanisms of KSB and development of highly efficient K fertilizers for promoting sustainable agriculture. This chapter comprehensively reviews current updates of KSB-based biofertilizer and their potentials for promoting sustainable crop production. The role of genomics and post-genomics approaches for better understanding of the mechanisms of the functions of applied KSB-based biofertilizers in the crop field and mitigation of the existing inconsistency in the efficiency of KSB-based fertilizers are also discussed.

Tissue Doppler Imaging

Doppler echocardiography relies on detection of the shift in frequency of ultrasound signals reflected from moving objects. With this principle, conventional Doppler techniques assess the velocity of blood flow by measuring high-frequency, low amplitude signals from small, fast-moving blood cells. In TDI, the same Doppler principles are used to quantify the higher-amplitude, lower-velocity signals of myocardial tissue motion.

There are important limitations to TD interrogation. As with all Doppler techniques, TDI measures only the vector of motion that is parallel to the direction of the ultrasound beam. In addition, TDI measures absolute tissue velocity and is unable to discriminate passive motion (related to translation or tethering) from active motion (fiber shortening or lengthening). The emerging technology of Doppler strain imaging provides a means to differentiate true contractility from passive myocardial motion by looking at relative changes in tissue velocity.

Precision viticulture aims to optimize vineyard management, reduce use of resources, reduce environmental impact and maximize yield and quality of grapes. New technologies as UAVs, satellites, proximal sensors, variable rate machines (VRT) and robots are being developed and used more frequently in some parts of the world in recent years. Developments and abilities of computers, software and informatic systems to read, analyze, process and transfer a huge amount of data are major milestones in precision viticulture. In addition, different decision support systems (DSSs) for making better crop management decisions at the right time also assist vine growers.

Introduction

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is an important fruit crop in arid and semi arid regions. In India, it is grown commercially in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan. India is one of the largest producers of pomegranate in the world. During 2020–2021, pomegranate was cultivated over 2.71 lakh ha with an annual production of 30.88 lakh tonnes and a productivity of 11.39 tonnes/ ha in India. Maharashtra is the leading state, with 63% of the area and 62% of total production. In India, pomegranate is available throughout the year (January–December). India has the largest area of pomegranate cultivation globally.

Pomegranate can tolerate heat, drought, and moisture deficit. The area under pomegranate cultivation in India is increasing daily due to its high demand, hardy nature, low cost of cultivation, high yields, better storage quality, and therapeutic values. It has enormous medicinal and nutritional value and is one of the richest sources of antioxidants. Several processed products such as juices, squash, jelly, anardana, and mouth fresheners are prepared by fruit processing. The fruit is mainly used as an ingredient in cooling and refrigerant mixtures and in the preparation of juice, concentrates, condiments, and pastes. The juice is highly nutritious and is recommended for patients suffering from gastric troubles. It contains 16.5% TSS and 0.33% acidity; total sugars, 13.93; reducing sugars, 13.60 and non-reducing sugars, 0.33%; and 9.27 mg/100 g ascorbic acid.

Introduction Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) is a very popular herbaceous biennial root vegetable mainly grown for its edible roots and leaves, it is commonly known as Chukander in Hindi, but also has different local names depending on the area, for instance, it is called Bita gacha in Bengali, Bita in Marathi, Beet in Punjab, Salada in Gujarati, Dumpamokka in Telugu, and Bit in Malayalam etc (Kumar, 2015). It belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae (now Amaranthaceae). The chromosome number of beetroot is 2n = 18. It is used as a cooked vegetable, salad, and for pickling and canning. Origin and distribution The origin of beetroot (Beta vulgaris) can be traced back to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East.

Introduction The popular legume crop known as broad beans, or Vicia faba in scientific jargon, is valued for its diversity and nutritional content. Broad beans have a long history that dates back thousands of years, and they have been used extensively in many cuisines and agricultural practises all over the world. With the use of references from reputable sources, this introduction will discuss the traits, cultivation, and health benefits of broad beans. Annual plants in the Fabaceae family, broad beans have a cool growing season. They originate from the Mediterranean region, but due to their resilience to various climatic conditions, they have been grown in numerous locations across the world. With a height of up to one metre, the plants are renowned for their vigorous growth. Large, podded fruits with many seeds or beans are produced by broad bean plants. Broad bean cultivation is a rather simple process

Introduction The ‘Brussels sprouts’ (Brassica oleracea L. var. gemmifera) coming under Brassicaceae family with chromosome number 2n=18 preferred by farmer for its edible green bud or sprouts (small heads that resemble miniature cabbages). It is a robust, slow-growing, longseason vegetable. The “sprouts” are formed in the leaf axils, beginning at the base of the stem and progressing upward. Brussels sprouts are high in vitamin A and C, as well as folic acid and dietary fiber. It also has anticancer effects due to the presence of sulforaphane. Similarly, to other Brassicas, Brussels sprouts contain indole-3-carbinol, which inhibit cancer cell growth. The temperate regions in the hills have the greatest potential for commercial production of brussels sprouts, followed by coastal regions with prolonged cool falls.

Introduction Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) is a cold season vegetable cropbelongs to family cruciferous or Brassicaceae family with somatic chromosome number 2n = 18. Cauliflower is derived from the Latin word i.e., ‘caulis’ means stem and ‘floris’ means flower and wild progenitor is Brassica cretica. In India, cauliflower is grown in two different varieties: snowball type and tropical type. However, at first, other varieties of cauliflower, such as the European and Cornish types from England, were also brought to India. Later, the Cornish and European forms of cauliflower were intercrossed to develop the tropical type of cauliflower. The Indian type or tropical type of cauliflower can be grown in hot weather and high rainfall condition therefore, such type of cauliflower is mostly grown in Indian plains during the month of May to January followed by temperate type or snowball group based on the temperature based varietal classification.

Introduction Chinese cabbage (Brassica compestris var. pekinensis i.e., heading type and Brassica compestris var. chinensis i.e., non-heading type) with chromosome number 2n=20 is a green leafy vegetable that has come under the same family Cruciferae as cabbage. It is also called as celery cabbage, Bok choy, Peking cabbage, snow cabbage, napa cabbage etc. according to the places. It is originated from China and later adopted to other countries, mostly in Asian countries. Even though not being a member of cole group, it is regarded as one because of the similarity in cultural practices, breeding systems, same growing season and many other features that resembles apart from being a brassica vegetable. The best planting season for Chinese cabbages is in early spring to harvest as a late spring and after mid-summer for a fall crop. The inner leaves of the plant are light yellow colour with long (oblong) shaped head which is covered by compact wrinkled, profuse and light green leaves. Generally, the crop has high nutritional value due to which its demand is increasing tremendously. The potassium content of the crop is high with low fat content. It is also rich in vitamin C, fiber, folate as well as beta carotene and calcium are also more as compared to the cabbage due its leaves colour

Introduction Garlic (Allium sativum L.) belongs to the monocotyledonous family Alliaceae or Amaryllidacea; Chromosome No. 2n=2x=16. In India, it is the second most extensively grown bulb crop after onion. According to several botanists (Candolle, 1985; Dscalov and Popov,1941; Kuznetsov, 1948 and Regel, 1975) garlic was cultivated and utilised by Mediterranean population since medieval time. Origin, History and Distribution Central Asia, particularly elevated highland of Pamir and Tian Shan is considered as the primary centre of origin of garlic (Vavilov, 1926), however Caucasus and North Africa is considered as the secondary centre of origin. Allium longicuspis is considered as the wild ancestor of garlic. The history of garlic usage dates back to 3000 B.C when it was used in Egyptians tombs likewise its first usage in modern era occurred during 10th century in England (Shinde and Sontakke, 1986) and its first introduction in North and South America was done by Spanish and Portugese settlers during fifteenth century; introduction and usage of garlic in other European and Asian countries occurred subsequently.

Introduction The Globe artichoke is a herbaceous perennial crop that is grown for its tender, edible, immature flower buds. It is botanically known as (Cynara scolymus L.) and having chromosome number 2n=2x=34. The globe artichoke belongs to the family Compositae, and it originates in the Mediterranean Basin, where it was most likely introduced as a crop in about the first century AD (Sonnante et al., 2007). The globe artichoke is presently grown as an annual crop or a perennial crop in different regions of the world. The increasing demand for globe artichokes as a source of pharmaceuticals and modern functional foods has created new challenges for producers, necessitating the concurrent development of new production hubs and the use of cutting-edge technology in established growing regions that can support the global market.

Introduction Kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala) belongs to family Cruciferae or Brassicaceae is a under exploited vegetable crop. It is introduced in 19th century. Economic Importance and Uses Its edible part is leaves and contains amazing source of amino acids, vitamins and minerals which has many medical advantages. It helps in lowering of blood cholesterol level which helps in lessening the heart illness. Kale leaves is also rich source of beta carotene, ascorbic acid and phylloquinone. Kale is a nutritious vegetable that is rich in vitamins A, C, and K, as well as calcium and iron. It is also a good source of antioxidants and fiber, making it a popular choice for health-conscious consumers. Kale is not so popular crop in India therefore it confined to very few states of Northern India like HP, UP, J & K, Pb and Haryana.

Introduction In India, knol-khol (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes) is belongs to family brassicaceae with chromosome number is 2n=18. It is grown in north eastern states of India, J &K, West Bengal, Assam, Punjab, and other regions of southern India also. It is distinguished by the formation of knobs(tuber) is a thickening of the stem tissue above the cotyledons. This knob is picked for human use as a raw or cooked vegetable, while young leaves are also utilized in some areas. Economic Importance & Uses Knol-khol, also known as kohlrabi or German turnip, is a biennial vegetable that belongs to the same family as cabbage and broccoli. It is a popular crop in many parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, and the Americas.

Introduction The leek (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum L.) belongs to the Alliaceae family and is a non-bulb-forming crop. It is consumed raw by itself, combined with other foods in salads, and cooked as flavoring in soups and stews. It is a preferred vegetable in a kitchen garden but is not commercially farmed in India. Leek has chromosome 2n=4X=32, which makes it an autotetraploid in nature. It is a vigorous biennial herbaceous cultivar that has never been discovered in its wild form. For their blanched stems and leaves, leeks are grown. It is a biennial plant that is used to flavor soups and eaten as a salad. The leek was first domesticated in the Eastern Mediterranean, where it was later brought to middle Europe by the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. Leeks may have originated in Central Asia and/or Europe, according to several theories. Since the majority of the Allium species are found worldwide, their distribution within the northern hemisphere is not uniform.

Introduction The Asteraceae family includes Lactuca sativa, better known as lettuce, which is cultivated as a leafy vegetable. Due to its usage in the creation of salad, soup, and vegetable curries, this plant is well-known around the world. Additionally, this herb has fantastic therapeutic qualities. Because of its flavor and excellent nutritional content, lettuce is one of the most popular raw green leafy vegetables and is grown all over the world. It is thought to be a crucial source of phytonutrients. Significant physical and genetic differences define it. The Egyptians were the first people to plant this leafy crop. It is currently manufactured all over the world and used in forensic medicine to treat a variety of conditions, including as pain, inflammation and issues with the stomach, as well as urinary tract infections. Its pharmacological potential, which includes antibacterial, antioxidant, neuroprotective, and hypnotic actions, has been scientifically supported by a number of research.

Introduction The botanical name of carrot is Raphanus sativus which belongs to the family Brassicaceae having haploid chromosome number of x = 9 and is believed to be originated from Europe and Asia. Radish is one of the most ancient and popular leaf cum root vegetables in both tropical and temperate regions. Radish probably originated in Europe and Asia. Radishes were extensively cultivated in Egypt and ancient records show that radishes were eaten before the pyramids were built. It had spread to China during 500 BC and to Japan during AD 700. The recent study has indicated that east of Mediterranean region, most probably China is the centre of origin of radish. Wild state of radish is not known. Previously it was believed to haveevolved from a common weed Raphanus raphanistrum Linn in Europe but now it is believed to have been evolved from more a variety of sources. As it is a short duration annual or biennial crop, it can be widely used in sequence cropping, companion cropping and intercropping in widely spaced crops. Roots are pink in colour due to presence of anthocyanin pigment.

Introduction The “rhubarb and pie plant,” also known as Rheum rhaponticum L., is a member of the Polygonaceae family. Diploid (2n = 2x = 22), tetraploid (2n = 4x = 44), or hexaploid (2n = 6x = 66) rheum species are the three possible forms. The long, thick leafstalk, often called the petiole, is used to make pies and sauces. The rhubarb stalks’ colour may range from the typically recognized crimson red to pale pink with specks to plain light green. Rhubarb is a perennial plant that thrives in cold climates and is drought and winter tolerant. Edible petioles and leaves are the first springtime shoots to emerge. rhubarb was first cultivated in Italy and introduced to the continent in the year 1608. The earliest recorded use of rhubarb in the United States was in 1778, but by 1806 it had achieved broad acceptance. According to Lindley’s Treasury of Botany, the name comes from the Greek word rheo, meaning “to make one vomit,” because of the root’s laxative properties. It is a good source of carbohydrates (3.8g), protein (0.74 g), fibre (1.75 g) and fat (0.13g) and minerals like calcium (130 mg) and potassium (360 mg) per 100 grams of edible portion. There are numerous rhubarb cultivars contain bioactive substances such as flavonoids, anthraquinones, glycosides, tannins, volatile oils, and saponins.

Introduction Spinach, scientifically known as Spinacia oleracea, is a versatile leafy green vegetable that is widely consumed and enjoyed for its nutritional benefits and culinary uses. Believed to have originated in Persia (modern-day Iran), spinach has been cultivated and consumed for centuries in various regions of the world. It is highly regarded for its vibrant green leaves and is a popular ingredient in salads, soups, smoothies, and cooked dishes. Spinach is an annual plant, meaning it completes its life cycle within one year. It has an upright growth habit with an erect, branched stem that can reach a height of about 30-60 cm. Due to its delicate flavor and versatility, spinach is used in various culinary preparations. It can be consumed raw in salads or added to sandwiches for a fresh and nutritious crunch. Spinach is commonly cooked as well, either sautéed, steamed, or included in soups, stews, and stir-fries. Its mild taste makes it an adaptable ingredient that complements a wide range of dishes (Thind et al., 2021)

Introduction Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica) having chromosome number 2n=2x=18 is a native of Mediterranean region. The broccoli was developed in eastern Mediterranean region and Italy is the main diversification which was later introduced into England about 1720. It is a cool season crop which produces fleshy green flower heads arranged on branches sprouting from thick edible stalk in such way that it looks like a miniature bonsai tree. It has the same family as cabbage and cauliflower. Even though it resembles cauliflower by forming head like structure but it has longer flower stalks with loose large green terminal head (10 to 20 cm). In Italy broccoli is called as broccoli which means “the flowering crest of a cabbage.” Due to the presence of bountiful nutritious properties, it is also known as “Crown Jewel of Nutrition”. It is a great source of vitamins A, B and C and minerals like iron, fibre, calcium, zinc, magnesium etc. Apart from the minerals and vitamin it also a rich source of riboflavin, thiamine and niacin.

Introduction Turnip (Brassica rapa subsp. repifera L.) is a root vegetable grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of India that is commonly grown for its edible root and leaves. The root is typically white or cream-colored with a slightly purple or pink top, and has a slightly sweet and earthy flavor. The leaves, which are also edible, have a slightly bitter taste and are typically used in soups, stews, and salads. Turnips are a coolseason crop and are typically planted in the spring or fall. They are hardy and can tolerate frost, making them a popular choice for fall and winter gardens. Turnips are a very nutritious vegetable, they are a good source of vitamin C, fiber, and potassium, as well as other minerals and vitamins. They are also low in calories and high in antioxidants. The root contains a compound called glucosinolate, which has been shown to have anti-cancer properties.

The word Cymbidium has been derived from a Greek word ‘Kumbos’ meaning ‘hole or cavity’ referring to the structure of the base of the lip. The genus consists of 44 known evergreen species in the family Orchidaceae, subfamily Vandoideae, tribe Cymbidieae and sub-tribe Cryptopodiinae. It is distributed from northwestern India to China, Japan, south through the Malay Archipelago to the north and east Australia. (DuPuy and Cribb, 1988). Cymbidiums have been for over hundred years one of the most famous orchids in commerce.

Kerala has a tropical humid weather characterised by high rainfall and humidity. The intense rainfall during June-September is a limiting factor for vegetable cultivation. High cost of labour, rapid urbanisation, small size of holdings and quality conscious consumers are some of the factors favouring protected cultivation in Kerala. Rain shelters and modified naturally-ventilated polyhouses are recommended structures for protected cultivation of vegetables. The important vegetables grown are cucumber, yard long bean, Capsicum, okra, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower and leafy vegetables. The conventional saw-toothed structure has been modified to suit Kerala weather by making variation in height and improving the roof and side ventilation so that temperature variation inside the structure is only 1°C compared to the ambient. The Kerala Agricultural University has also developed an ad-hoc package for protected cultivation of vegetables, considering the soil and weather parameters and is providing necessary technical support to growers and extension officers. The technology for large-scale production of virus-free vegetable transplants in pro-trays has also been standardized. There is a growing demand for quality, disease-free seedlings and technology can be scaled up into a profitable agri-entreprenurial model. Open field precision farming through fertigation and mulching is profitable compared to conventional system of cultivation. Besides maximising water-and nutrient-use efficiency of the crop, this technology offers scope for mechanisation in vegetable cultivation saving human labour requirement by almost 50%. Rain shelters are useful for year-round production of vegetables in homestead for small growers.

Orchids are known for their exquisite beauty and trade in global floriculture business. The Netherlands is pioneer in roduction and ex ort of tem erate orchid while Thailand and Hawaii are the world leader in tropical orchids, respectively. Recently, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Sri Lanka are catching the international market. The orchid industry is expanding in terms of magnitude in some of the major orchid-producing nations. The global orchid market has passed $ 1 Billion mark in 2010. The leading orchid producing countries in 2010 are:

Country Production ($ million) Japan 280 USA 170 Taiwan 130 China 70 Brazil 60 UK 45 Thailand 35 Italy 30 New Zealand 20 Source: Orchid News The world consumption of orchids (potted plants) is valued more than $ 500 million (2000). The Dominican Republic, Costa Rica and India have recently begun to produce orchids for export. Commercial production of orchids has increased dramatically through the world in the past quarter century. The most common genera sold in Japan from 1993 to 2002 were Phalaenopsis (30%), Nobile type Dendrobium (20%), Oncidium (20%), Cymbidium (15%) and Cattleya (10%). The potted orchids sold through Dutch flower auctions increased from 50, 0000 to 18 million pots.

Introduction

Pulses are the second most important group of crops after cereals in India. They are important food crops for nutritional security, soil health and sustainable agriculture. Consequently, they remained an internal component of Indian agriculture especially under rainfed since time immemorial. They are among the ancient food crops with evidence of their cultivation for over 8,000 years. India, China, Brazil, Canada, Myanmar and Australia are the major pulse producing countries with relative share of 25%, 10%, 5%, 5% and 4%, respectively. In 2017, the global pulses production was 95.98 million tonnes from an area of 95.17 million ha with an average yield of 1008 kg/ha. Dry beans contributed 32.7% to global total pulses production followed by chickpea (15.4%), dry peas (16.89%), lentil (7.91%) and pigeonpea (7.1%). About 70% of the global pigeonpea, 60% of chickpea and 17% of lentil area falls in India (FAO STAT, 2018). India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world contributing around 25-28% of the total global production.

India can be proud of growing the largest number of pulse crops (grain legumes) in the world. Over a dozen pulse crops including chickpea (Cicer arietinum), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), mungbean (Vigna radiata), urdbean (Vigna mungo), cowpea (V. unguiculata), lentil (Lens culinaris), lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus L.), frenchbean (Phaseolus vulgaris), horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum), field pea (Pisum sativum), moth bean (V. aconitifolium), etc. are grown in one or the other part of the country throughout year. The latest data (2017-18) indicate that the present production of pulses is 25.23 million tonnes from an area of 29.99 million ha with productivity of 841 kg/ha (DAC, 2019) (Fig. 1). The stagnant growth of pulse production and continuous increasing human population in the country led to decline in per capita consumption of pulses from 67 g/day/person during 1951 to 35 g/day/person during 2010 (Indian Council of Medical Research recommends 65 g/day/person).

The most important pulse crops grown are chickpea (48%), pigeonpea (15%), mungbean (7%), urdbean (7%), lentil (5%) and field pea (5%). To fulfill domestic demand of pulses in the country, India has to import 3-4 million tones of pulses every year. In order to ensure self-sufficiency, the pulse requirement in the country is projected to be about 50 million tonnes by 2050 which necessitates an annual growth rate of 4.0% (IIPR, 2013).

Introduction

Soils are formed by weathering of rocks and minerals and all soils contain some amount of soluble salts. Many of these act as a source of essential nutrients for the healthy growth of plants. However, when quantity and quality of salts in the soil near rhizosphere exceeds a particular value, growth, yield and/or quality of most crops is adversely affected. Such a soil is called salt-affected. The degree of adverse effects depends upon the type and quantity of salts, crop and its variety, stage of growth, cultural practices and environmental factors viz. temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall etc. Development of salinity and waterlogging is a serious problem in arid and semi-arid regions of the world and threatening the sustainability of irrigated agriculture.

Salt-affected soils occupy an estimated 952.2 million ha of land in the world that constitutes nearly 7% of the total land area and nearly 33% of the potential arable land (Dudal and Purnell, 1986). In India, the salt affected soils account for 6.727 million ha i.e. 2.1% of geographical area of the country. These soils are mostly found in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh. In the last 25 years 1.1 million ha of alkali soils have been reclaimed in the states of Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. These have contributed to the additional food grain production of 10 million tonnes annually. Reclamation of alkali soils have also decreased the incidents of floods and malaria and increased the groundwater recharge.

Floriculture industry comprises of cultivation and trade of cut and loose flowers, potted plants, foliage and bedding plants, and dried flowers under open field as well as protected conditions. Globally, more than 145 countries are involved in cultivation of floricultural crops. Though the art of growing flowers is not new to India, protected cultivation is relatively new in India. Enormous genetic diversity, varied agroclimatic conditions, versatile human resources offer India a unique scope for diversification into new avenues which have not been explored to a greater extent. India also has a strong dry flower industry, which contributes a major share to the overall trade. Other segments like fillers, potted plants, seeds and planting material, turf grass industry and value-added products also contribute a share in overall growth of floriculture industry.

Cut flower production is a growing business in most of the Asian countries. Technology for production is well-known and it has been utilized to the maximum in many countries. As a consequence, cut flowers are commercially produced in larger quantities in these countries, resulting in surplus quantity during normal periods of blooming. On the other hand, such prices are much higher during the periods of needs such as certain special occasions, or off-season.

Vegetables are the most extensively utilized plants for  exploitation of heterosis for  development of hybrids. As the importance of heterosis breeding increased, male sterility proved an asset particularly in crops like onion and carrot which produce many but small sized flowers making hand emasculation tedious. Large scale hybrid seed production sometimes remains handicapped because of high labour cost, unavailability of trained labour at crucial times i.e. at blooming, bad weather conditions like continuous rains etc. The phenomenon of male sterility has always been of long term interest for  researchers of various disciplines of applied, strategic and basic sciences. It is of special interest for  plant breeders to produce more efficient and economic hybrid seed. Discovery of certain male sterile mutants which  eliminate more laborious operations of emasculation combined with various marker genes further facilitate identification of undesirable types even at seedling stage has widened the very basis of hybrid seed production. This technique has also reduced the total cost of hybrid seed production. Onion crop provides one of the rare examples of very early recognition of male sterility (Jones and Emsweller 1936), its inheritance and use in hybrid seed production (Jones and Clarke 1943). Since then male sterility is reported in fairly large number of crops including vegetables.

Introduction

Rice is the staple food for over half the world’s population. China and India alone account for ~50% of the rice grown and consumed. Rice provides up to 50% of the dietary caloric supply for millions living in poverty in Asia and is, therefore, critical for food security. Globally, share of Asia continent in rice production is more than 90% followed by America (5.2%), Africa (3.4%) and Europe (0.6%). It is becoming an important food staple in both Latin America and Africa. Record increases in rice production have been observed since the start of the ‘Green Revolution’. However, rice remains one of the most protected food commodities in world trade. Rice is a poor source of vitamins and minerals, and losses occur during the milling process. Populations that subsist on rice are at high risk of vitamin and mineral deficiency.

The Indian population of 1.32 billion is projected to reach 1.53 billion by 2030 A.D. Goyal and Singh (2002) estimated a demand of 146 million tonnes of rice (taken as 50% of total cereals) by the year 2030. On the other end of the scale, 3^rd projection puts rice demand to be 156 million tonnes by 2030 (ICAR, 2010). To meet this, it is immensely necessary to increase the productivity levels without adversely affecting the natural resource base. Achievement of the targeted production would be an uphill task in the coming decades with the shrinking natural resource base, deteriorating soil health and soil productivity, declining input use efficiency, plateauing of yields in irrigated ecologies and lack of a major yield breakthrough in rainfed ecologies. Further, slowdown in the growth rate of cereal production and growing population pressure have emerged as formidable challenges for the future food and nutritional security in India. These challenges will be more extreme under emerging situations of natural resource degradation, high energy demands, volatile markets and risks associated with global climate change (Jat et al., 2016; Lal, 2016). Since, rice is the staple food for our country’s food security primarily depends on this wonderful crop. Globally rice is cultivated now in 167 million ha with annual production of around 769 million tonnes (499.3 million tonnes, milled rice) of rough rice and average productivity of 4.6 tonnes/ha (3.62 t/ha, milled rice) of rough rice (FAO STAT, 2017). In Asian countries, >90% of the rice is produced and consumed. The other continents in which rice is grown are Africa (7.78% of the global area), South America (6.4%) and North America (1.4%).

India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world after China. As per the National Horticulture Database (3rd Advance Estimate), the area under cultivation of fruits is 6.914 million hectares with a production of 103.027 million tonnes. Mango (34.71%) ranks 1st in the area, followed by citrus (15.42%), banana, and grapes (2.14%), standing in the 9th position. Likewise, Mango (22.4%) occupies the 2nd position in production, followed by Citrus (12.89%) and Grapes, sharing around 3%. Underutilized fruit crops, such as aonal, bael, ber, Jamun, and tamarind, and minor fruit crops like phalsa, karonda ker, salvadora, etc., are grown in drier tracts of the country, including the arid region. Some of the crops introduced as non-traditional crops have revolutionized the fruit industry in India. Although the total acreage of cultivation and production of fruit crops has accelerated annually, the productivity of fruit crops has been on a declining trend due to several factors impacted by abiotic stresses. Since plants’ first line of defense lies in the roots, the success or failure of orcharding enterprises depends upon rootstocks.

Introduction

In India, around 70 per cent of cultivated land is under rainfed condition, but it accounts for about 42 per cent of the total quantity of produced food grains (Sujatha et al., 2013). It was estimated that using quality seeds, productivity can be enhanced up to the extent of 15-20 per cent and under optimum management, the increment may touch upon up to 45 per cent depending upon the crops. Quality seeds play a major role, along with improved package of practices leading to enhanced productivity. Crops propagated with seeds face many problems: Poor seed germination, poor seedling establishment under several abiotic stresses such as, drought, salinity and poor seedling vigour. The capacity of a crop propagated with seeds to grow depends on its genetic constituent and its interaction with the environmental biotic stresses. A number of diverse materials/ treatments at varying doses have been used to increase the rate and uniformity of seedling emergence in many field crops, which are generally categorized for seed enhancement. Seed enhancement may be defined as “post-harvest treatments that improve germination and seedling growth or facilitate the delivery of seeds and other inputs/materials required at the time of sowing smoothly”. Seed enhancement technology predominantly possess a central objective to further improve seed performance by treating with specific additives/chemical/organics/botanicals etc. under very specific regimes and with the aid of certain planting equipments to grow uniform crop obviously to harness higher productivity and production (Halmer, 2006). There are several ways and means to enhance vigour of germinating seedlings while emerging from the seed, which produce a uniform crop stand and finally substantially more yield is achieved by adopting simple techniques.

Abstract

Seed technology deals with the various aspects of seed- right from production to make it readily and timely available to the end users. The advancement in seedtechnology was realizedlong back and itwas considered equally important to the development of new technology (varieties). Considering the importance of seed as well as variability among seed of different crop species or even in same crop species, the researchers initiated work and focused their direction of research accordingly which resultedinto worthy achievements. Brief overviews of the advancements made in seed technology are being discussed in this chapter. However, efforts are still on to get rid of problems of seed technology in order to strengthen the seed industry, which makes the highest contribution to rural development, probably among all industries.

Introduction

Solar energy could be converted to electricity both through thermal route and photovoltaic cells but the latter is more advantageous as it has no moving part, it doesn’t require water, a rare commodity specifically in arid regions. Moreover, the maintenance of PV systems is easy, it can be installed right at the place of utility, the system is modular and these are reliable having life more than twenty years and of course eco-friendly.

In photovoltaic cells, generally known as solar cells, charge carriers are generated by the incoming irradiance (energy greater than band gap) and these are separated and swept away by an internal electric field, which is created by either making metal semiconductors contact (Schottky barrier) or p-n junction or MIS (Metal Insulator Semiconductor) or SIS (Semiconductor Insulator Semiconductor) devices. The height of potential barrier at the junction determines the voltage and the flowing charge carriers contribute to the current when connected externally. The choice of material depends on its band gap, absorption coefficient, diffusion length, mobility of charge carriers, ease in contact formation, type of junction with thermal and electronic compatibility, availability of material, toxicity and several other fabricational opto-electronic and practical aspects. PV cells based on single crystal and polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, CdS, CdTe, CuInGaSe, InP, GaAs etc. have been much studied. PV modules of efficiency above 16% on silicon and 10% on CdTe, CuInGaSe and 8-9 % on amorphous silicon are commercially available. Dye sensitized TiO₂ devices have also been receiving more attention with coloured panels for windows. Organic semiconductors are explored and more recently perovskite solar cell has been studied. Flexible solar cell panels based on thin film devices are in use. The applications have gone from solar lighting to operation of pumps, small and medium size equipment, stand alone and grid connected solar power plants, roof top and building integrated PV and now even energizing cars and aero planes. With technological advancement and enhanced production (233 GW in 2015) the cost of commercially available PV modules, which used to be high at one time has been brought down from 30 $/Wp in seventies to about $0.5/Wp at present.

Definitions

Pen Enclosure for housing rabbits that allows for freedom of movement by rabbits and allows for the provision of a variety of environmental enrichment strategies. Cage Fully enclosed container for housing rabbits which, because of its size, restricts freedom of movement by rabbits and limits the provision of environmental enrichment strategies. Cages are usually constructed from metal or plastic, with solid or mesh sides.

Introduction
Vegetables are an essential diet component for human beings and nutritional security because of their short season, high yielding potential, nutritional capacity financial viability and potential to create on-farm and off-farm agricultural employment. India ranks as the world’s second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables. In India, vegetables and fruits accounts for about 92% of the total horticultural production. Daily diet consisting of vegetables is primary sources of proteins, vitamins, minerals, dietary fibers, micronutrients, antioxidants and phytochemicals. Additionally, vegetables have wide range of phyto-chemicals such as anti-carcinogenic factors and anti-oxidants constituents (e.g. flavonoids, glucosinolates and isothyocynates) (Silva Dias, 2019). In India an area of 11.35 million hectares is employed for the production of vegetables which is around 204.84 million metric tonnes (APEDA, 2023). Novel genotypes adaptable to various horticultural systems must be developed due to rapid climate change, customers demand and the resurgence and emergence of plant’s pest and diseases (Cardi et al., 2017). Plant tissue culture is emerging as a technology which has significant impact on agriculture sector by producing plants to meet out the growing global demand. It provides the huge potential areas currently offering a glimpse into the future. Apart from this, it has advanced significantly in the area of vegetable sector. Vegetable crops can be improved through efficient in vitro plant regeneration system of biotechnological approach consisting of meristem culture, haploid production and somatic hybridization (Kumari et al., 2020). Genetic engineering is a novel approach to produce improved crops varieties with greater yield potential and pest resistant. Genetic transformation plays an important role in genetic engineering process in order to improve genetics of crop plants. The world’s demand for nutritious and cheap food market have prompted the scientists to step up their efforts to genetically modify the economically significant plants. Traditional breeding methods have several limitations such as more time consuming to develop a plant with desired traits and sexual incompatibility barrier and these limitations can be overcome by adopting effective strategies for regeneration and transformation of valuable plants. Genetic engineering has shown to be an excellent method for improving vegetable crops under different adverse conditions (Gerszberg, 2018). Plant tissue culture and molecular biology are the technical foundations of genetic transformation technology, which is used to produce enhanced crop varieties, disease-free plants (virus-free), genetic transformation, secondary metabolite production, and varieties resistant to various biotic stresses such as diseases-pests, and abiotic stresses like high temperature, drought, and salinity (Hussain et al., 2012).

Introduction

The general recommendation for intake of fruits and vegetables is at least 400 g/ person as recommended by World Health Organization (WHO), which amounts to five servings of 80 g/day or about 146 g/person/annum. For vegetables, the recommended intake requirement is at least 300 g per day per individual. This 300 g requirement must include 50 g leafy vegetables, 50 g roots and tubers and 200 g other vegetables (Kapur, 2016). Current annual vegetable production including potato, based on recent three years (2015-16, 2016-17, 2017-18) average is around 177 million tonnes from 10 million ha giving a productivity of 17.7 tonnes/ha. With this average and stagnating production and assuming Indian population at 133 crores (1.33 billion) and 25% post-harvest losses, per capita per day availability of vegetables comes to 273 g leaving a gap of 27 g between the recommended dose and the availability of vegetables/head/day in India. By 2050, the projected population of India is 1.5 billion and to meet the requirement of this population, vegetable production will have be 220 million tonnes, of course making allowance of 25% post-harvest losses. Considering all kind of constraints on the available land area of vegetables, the vegetable area will be around 10 million ha and consequently, major gain of production will have to come from productivity increase from current level of about 18 to 22 tonnes/ha and this seems to be a gigantic task as during last several years, the productivity of vegetables in India has been between 17 and 18 tonnes/ha, an indication that perhaps productivity has reached to a plateau. This situation will call fall massive interventions on technological fronts in terms of innovative products with focus on better hybrids with higher yields, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses coupled with horizontal scaling up of modern production technologies. This chapter looks into the modern production technologies as applicable to vegetable crops in India to boost the productivity further from current 18 tonnes/ha to at least 22 tonnes/ha.

1. Introduction
Soil salinity is a global threat which affects crop production and poses challenges to sustainable development in various regions worldwide. Worldwide, salinity and sodicity impact 20% of cultivated land and 33% of irrigated land, respectively (Kumar and Sharma, 2020). Global map of salt–affected soil (SAS) indicated that 0.424 billion hectares of upper soil layer (0–0.3 m) and 0.833 billion hectares of subsoil layer (0.30–1 m) are salt-affected (FAO, 2021) and by 2050, salinization will degrade 50% of agricultural land (Wang et al., 2003). In India, SAS currently occupy 2.1% of total geographical area. Among the SAS, 2.96 million ha is saline and 3.77 million ha is sodic (Narjary et al., 2024). Due to salinity and sodicity, yearly 16.8 million megagram of agricultural produce are wasted in India, costing of ? 230.2 billion (Sharma et al., 2015).
Salt–affected soils are a significant concern in several regions of India. These soils contain high level of sodium salts (NaCl, Na2SO4, NaHCO3, Na2CO3) which adversely affect soil fertility and crop productivity. Here are some areas in India known to have salt–affected soils:
1. Indo–Gangetic Plain: The Indo–Gangetic Plain, spanning across states like Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and parts of West Bengal, is prone to salinity issues. Over–irrigation, poor drainage, the presence of salt containing parent materials in the lithology and use of saline irrigation have contributed to soil salinity.
2. Coastal Regions: Coastal regions in India, such as parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karela, Odisha and Andaman and Nicobar Islands experience salinity problems due to sea water intrusion and the presence of coastal saline soils. These soils are affected by high levels of sodium chloride and other salts, making them unsuitable for cultivation of most arable crops.
3. Arid and Semi–Arid Regions: Arid and semi–arid regions, including areas in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Madhya Pradesh, face the risk of soil salinization due to low rainfall, high evaporation rates, and poor– quality irrigation water. Waterlogging in these regions can also lead to soil salinization.
4. Irrigation Command Areas: Certain irrigation command areas in different states, including Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, have witnessed salinity problems as a result of improper water management, excessive irrigation, and inadequate drainage infrastructure.

Introduction

Wheat is pre-eminent both in regard to its antiquity and its importance as a food of mankind in the world. In prehistoric times, it was cultivated throughout Europe and was one of the most valuable cereals of ancient Persia, Greece and Egypt. Wheat has been cultivated for several thousand years in India with the evidence of presence of wheat grains in the Mohen-Jo-Daro excavations. Till 1947, the total wheat production was only about 6 million tonnes and was not sufficient to meet the demand, leading to large scale importation of wheat. Subsequently production increased due to an increase in both total cropped and irrigated area. Wheat crop has exhibited a robust growth trend since the onset of the ‘green revolution’ in 1968. India, one of the greatest success stories of ‘green revolution’, is the second largest producer of wheat in the world after China. During 2018-19 (Fig. 1) India produced a record breaking 101.20 million tonnes of wheat from 29.62 million ha area indicating 3.42 tonnes/ha wheat yield (ICAR-IIWBR, 2019). On the other hand, India is also the second largest wheat consumer after China. Thus, wheat and its various products play an increasingly important role in managing India’s food security and India became the wheat surplus nation as against the wheat deficient nation during 1960’s. The tremendous progress in area, production and productivity of wheat to the tune of 2.9, 12.2 and 4.2 times, respectively as compared to 1950 has made India (Table 1) the member of elite group of wheat exporting countries (Workman, 2018).

The demand of day by day increasing population there is lacking of nutritious food to peoples all around world. Underutilized crops like small or minor millets are having more nutrition and providing calories up to 2000 to 3000 calories per person per day than our staple crops i.e wheat, rice, and maize etc. Small Millets are the most underutilized crop in the world possessing high nutrient-cereal qualities and potential for the improvement of food security, nation income and generate the employment for the rural peoples. Millets are rich in nutrients such as proteins, fibers, carbohydrates, fats, vitamin-B, and minerals like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, potassium, and zinc etc.They are highly nutritive crop, non-acid forming, glutan free and help in reducing blood sugar level, blood pressure, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. They also help in preventing asthma and migraines sufferings and fighting malnutrition in children s and adults.S mall millets are considered the forgotten crop species because of lower yield compared to other millets i.e. Sorghum and Pearl millet and cereals i.e. rice, wheat, maize etc. Being a highly nutritive cereal crop, easy to digest, high fibers and low glycine-max content, environment friendly and prevent the human hazards small millets still remained neglected and underutilized crop. Out of 200 underutilized crops identified 29 are small millets species (NAS USA, ICUC). Considering the food demand of common peoples, emerging health consciousness and nutrient demand for food security emerged small millets to limelight because of ecologically sound to climate. Still, the harvest of crop demands combination of computational technologies to full-fill food needs of population. Recognizing the potential of small millets in improving the national income UN-FAO announced the year 2023 as International Year of Millets. This chapter focused on application of climate smart agricultural methods such as artificial intelligence for the improvement of small millets to achieve future food security.

Introduction

Peach (Prunus persica (L.) is an important deciduous fruit crop in temperate regions. The basic chromosome number 8 and somatic chromosome number 16. It belongs to family Rosaceae family, subfamily Prunoideae. It has a deciduous nature and can reach heights of 5 to 10 m. It is classified with the almond within the genus Prunus in the subgenus Amygdalus that is distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated seed shell.

The majority opinion among botanists today is that they are Chinese in origin and were transported along the silk road in ancient times, most likely by around 2000 BC, to Persia and the Mediterranean region. Introduction of the cultivated peaches probably took place in the latter half of the 19th century.

China, Japan, Iran, Turkey, and other Mediterranean nations have historically produced significant amounts of peaches. Peaches have been cultivated in these nations for thousands of years. The United States, Canada, and Australia have all grown in importance more lately. Due to insufficient summer heat, oceanic climate regions like the Pacific Northwest and the British Isles are generally unsuitable for peach growth, though they can occasionally be grown trained against south-facing walls to capture additional heat from the sun. In the British Isles, trees can thrive in a protected, south facing location and produce both flowers and a plentiful supply of fruit.

Introduction

A significant nut that originated in Central Asia, the almond (Prunus communis) is now grown all over the world in hot, dry Mediterranean climatic zones (Monteiro et al., 2001). The Rosaceae family it belongs to (Martinez-Gómez et al., 2007). Number of chromosomes is 2n = 16. Today, the USA produces the most almonds, followed by Australia and Spain. Due to genetic, ecological, and processing-related variables, different cultivars of almond exhibit varied chemical profiles. Regular nut consumption has been linked to health benefits, particularly in the fight against cardiometabolic disorders (Massantini et al., 2022). Consuming nuts has been shown to have beneficial benefits against a variety of illnesses, including obesity, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome, according to epidemiological research and clinical trials (Chen et al., 2006). Regular nuts consumers also exhibit better metabolic profiles and smaller waist circumferences. The edible portion of an almond, known as the almond kernel, is made up of two enormous cotyledons that are protected by an exterior hull and an inside shell (Aydin et al., 2003). When the seed reaches maturity, the hull opens and the seed readily separates. Approximately 50% of almonds are lipids, 25% are proteins, and 20% are carbs. Almonds also have a low moisture content and a variety of minor beneficial components (Ahrens et al., 2005). Almonds’ macro- and micronutrient composition is related to their consumption’s positive effects on health (Esfahlan et al., 2010). The lipid profile can be highlighted as one of the components with beneficial health properties. According to Roncero et al.(2020), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) make up 60% of the lipid profile, followed by polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), fibre, vitamins, minerals, phytosterols, and polyphenols.

Introduction

The apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) is a significant temperate fruit growing in India and is widely cultivated in many regions around the world with cold winters, frost-free springs, and warm summers. It is a deciduous tree that belongs to the Rosaceae family. It is a widely cultivated fruit tree and is known by various names across different regions. In India, apples are commonly referred to as “seb” in Hindi, “sev” in Bengali, “sevva pazham” in Tamil, and “seema palam” in Telugu. These names reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity of the country (Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 2020). The apple is a round fruit that comes in a variety of colors including red, green, and yellow. The apple tree, like most plants, has a specific chromosome number that determines its genetic makeup and characteristics. The chromosome number of the cultivated apple, Malus domestica, is 2n = 34 (Janick et al., 1996). This means that each cell of the apple tree contains 34 chromosomes, with 17 pairs in total. Most of cultivated apples (2n=34) are diploids, and a (2n=51) are triploids. Understanding the chromosome number is crucial for breeding programs and genetic research as it helps in identifying genetic variations and selecting desired traits. Delicious group apples are widely popular and cover 50–70% of the land. The apple, which is the most popular table fruit in the world, is regarded as the king of temperate fruits. Its positive qualities include a pleasing look and a longer shelf life at room temperature. Except for the Kashmir Valley and a small portion of the Kullu Valley, the majority of apple acreage is on hill slopes. Unlike other fruits, apples can be grown effectively in sod culture as long as the apple plants are given more nutrients than is recommended to prevent nutritional competition between grass and apple trees. They require a cool climate with cold winters and moderate summers for the fruit to develop properly.

Introduction

Prunus armeniaca L. is a highly nutritious fruit belonging to the Rosaceae family and subfamily Prunoideae. It is known for its attractive appearance, pleasant flavor, and aroma. The name “apricot” is believed to have originated from the Latin word “praecocia” meaning “early matured” or the Arabic word “albarquq” meaning “short ripening period.” Apricot is considered to be an important temperate fruit crop due to its high nutritional and health benefits. Apricots are rich in a multitude of vitamins and minerals, including Retinol (Vit. A), Thiamine (Vit. B1), Riboflavin (Vit. B2), Ascorbic acid (Vit. C) and Tocopherol (Vit. E) as well as calcium, iron, sodium, phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium. It also has low levels of fats and carbohydrates, making it an important food in human nutrition (Batu et al., 2007; Karatas and Kamisli, 2007). Research has indicated that incorporating apricots into one’s diet may counteract the risk posed by several ailments, including cardiovascular disease, cancers, cataracts, and other degenerative diseases (Oomah and Mazza, 2000).

Introduction

Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L.) belongs to the family Rosaceae and is a perennial fruit crop that is widely cultivated in different parts of the world due to its high nutritional and medicinal values. The fruit is known by different names such as bramble, dewberry, and thimbleberry, and has a chromosome number of 2n=14. Blackberry is a rich source of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and dietary fiber, and has potential health benefits in the management of various diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disorders (Kumar et al., 2018). The fruit is consumed fresh and also processed into jams, jellies, juices, wines, and other value-added products.

Origin and distribution

Blackberry is believed to have originated in Europe and Western Asia, and was introduced to North America by early European settlers. The fruit is now widely cultivated in different parts of the world including Asia, Africa, Australia, and South America (Arya et al., 2020). In India, blackberry cultivation is gaining popularity in states such as Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttarakhand, where the climatic conditions are favorable for its growth and development.

The blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) is an evergreen or perennial deciduous shrub that is a member of the Ericaceae family and it is native to North America. It is oblat at maturity and forms dark blue color. Blueberry is also known as “the king of berries,” have real blue fruits, which is very rare in nature (Chu et al., 2018). Tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates make up the majority of the distribution of blueberries. The United States, Chile, Canada, Spain, China, Japan and Morocco are the top producer in the world (Yousuf et al., 2016). Traditionally, 58% of the world fresh blueberries are consumed in North America. The lowbush and highbush varieties combine produced 850,886 tonnes of blueberries in 2020. The United States alone produced around 35% and Peru for 21%. (FAOSTAT 2022).

According to the South Africa Berry Producers’ Association, blueberries were originally brought to South Africa in the 1970s and are currently one of the country’s fastest growing agricultural sectors. There are many places where blueberries are grown, with the Western Cape produced around (60%) followed by Limpopo (15%), North-West (10%), Gauteng (8%), Eastern Cape (4%), Free State (2%) and Mpumalanga (1%) (Steyn et al., 2022). Federick Coville of the United States Department of Agriculture began the first blueberry domestication in 1908. (USDA). High and low bushes are the most widely grown kind of blueberry, however rabbiteyes are only significant in South and North America. High and low bushes hybrids are very common in the upper Midwest of the United States. The main growing countries for north high bush are Australia, Germany, and France.

Introduction

Cherry is a fleshy fruit of stone, it occupies a prominent position among the temperate fruit grown commercially all over the world. Cherry belongs to the genus prunus and the family Rosaceae. Other stone fruits such as plum, peach, almond, apricot also come under the genus prunus. The cultivated cherries are divided into two main group sweet cherries (Prunus avium) are mainly cultivated for table purpose and are consumed as fresh fruits (Fig. 1) , sour cherry (Prunus cerasus), is mainly cultivated for processing purpose which is a cross of Prunus avium × Prunus fruticosa. Somatic chromosome number of sweet cherry is 2n=16 and somatic chromosome number of sour cheery is 2n=32. Cherry requires highest chilling hours among the temperate fruits with 2000 to 2700 hours. In India cherry is commercially grown in Kashmir valley and other adjoining regions with an area of around 1,110 ha. With and annual production of around 605 MT (Bal, 1997). In these areas the span of winter is wide and very much pronounced and according to Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database (Anon. 2022) Turkey is largest producer of cherry in the world, around 42% of world production originated in Turkey, and around 14% production in the United States. Among the temperate fruit cherry comes first in the market. The primary center of origin is supposed to be the Caspian and Black sea region from where it has been spread throughout the world (Oz., 2013). The earliest records indicate that it was first domesticated in Greece around 300 BC. It spread to Italy from Greece where it was established as a fruit crop by 37 BC. In India, it was introduced by Britishers in Kashmir, Kullu and Shimla hills during pre-independence era. At present European countries are growing cherries on large scales for table purpose and also for processing.

Introduction

Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) belongs to the family Fagaceae and is a deciduous tree. It is also known as sweet chestnut and has a chromosome number of 2n=24. Chestnuts have been used for centuries for various purposes such as food, timber, and medicine. They are an important source of carbohydrates and contain several nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and fiber (Laribi et al., 2020). In India, chestnuts are mainly grown in the hilly regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.

Origin and distribution

Chestnut is believed to have originated in the Mediterranean region and was later introduced to other parts of the world. It is widely grown in Europe, Asia, and North America. In India, chestnuts were introduced by the British in the 19th century and were mainly grown as an ornamental tree. It was only after Independence that chestnuts were recognized as a potential crop for the hilly regions of the country (Bhat et al., 2016).

Area and production

The total area under chestnut cultivation in India is estimated to be around 1000 hectares, with an annual production of around 1000 metric tons (Bhat et al., 2016). The major states growing chestnuts are Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.