eBook Chapters

Introduction

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton) belongs to the Ericaceae family and is native to North America. Cranberries are also known by various other names, including American cranberry, bearberry, and lingonberry. The plant has a diploid chromosome number of 24 and grows in acidic, nutrient-poor soils in wetlands and bogs. It is an important commercial crop worldwide due to its high nutritional value, antioxidant properties, and health benefits. Cranberries are primarily consumed as juice, dried fruit, or in the form of sauces and jellies. They are a rich source of vitamins C and E, dietary fiber, anthocyanins and essential minerals such as potassium, manganese, and copper. The fruit is also used in the pharmaceutical industries due to its anti inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anti aging properties (Santos et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017).

The composition of cranberries is quite remarkable, with high levels of antioxidants, including phenolic compounds such as flavonols, anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins. These compounds are responsible for the fruit’s vibrant red color and are thought to provide many of the health benefits associated with cranberries. Cranberries are an important crop in the United States, Canada, and Chile, with significant economic value. They are primarily consumed as juice or in processed forms, such as sauces and jams. Cranberries are also used in the production of dietary supplements and cosmetics.

1.0 Introduction

Kiwi or kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) belongs to the Actinidiaceae family that is a fruiting vine originated from Yangtze Valley of China. Kiwifruit was named because it resembles a flightless bird, kiwi which is New Zealand’s national symbol. It is also referred as “New Zealand’s horticultural wonder”. In china kiwi was named as Yang Tao and also as “China’s miracle fruit”. Over the past century, kiwis have also acquired a variety of strange names, including “melonette”, “wood berry”, “strange fruit”, “monkey peach, “macaque pear”, “mihoutau”, “Chinese gooseberry” (Tyagi et al., 2015) “vine pear”, “sun peach” and the particularly enticing moniker “hairy bush fruit” (Hugh Cambbell and Julia Haggerty., 2008). Kiwifruit is a nutrient dense fruit which is exceptionally known for its flavour and vitamin C content (Guroo et al., 2017). Digestive potential, antioxidant property, healthy metabolism, immune function and protection from coronary artery disease are the therapeutic benefits of kiwi (Feruguson., 2003; Boeing et al., 2012; Singeltary., 2012). It reduces the risk against cancer (Puri and Manjula., 2018), arteriosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases and irritable bowel syndrome (Chang et al., 2012) as it is a rich source of ascorbic acid and polyphenols. Due to palatability, aromatic compounds present in kiwifruit attract many consumers. Unique flavour and aroma is increased due to the presence of aldehyde E-2-hexenal, methyl benzoate, ethyl butanoate and esters. China tops in kiwifruit production followed by Italy. Two biggest exporters of Kiwi in world are Italy and New Zealand (Testolin & Ferguson, 2009). Kiwifruit has excellent pharmacological profile and it helps in development of nutritional supplements for welfare of mankind. Farmers can earn high return per unit area as it bears heavily every year and has no crop failure. Thus, kiwifruit has bright prospects in our country.

Introduction

The olive fruit, scientifically known as Olea europaea L., is the edible fruit of the olive tree. It belongs to the Oleaceae family, which encompasses various other plants such as jasmine and lilac (Bartolini & Prevost, 2002). The scientific name Olea europaea reflects its European origin, with the genus name, Olea, derived from the Latin word “oleum” meaning oil, emphasizing the fruit’s high oil content. The species name, europaea, signifies its prevalence in Europe (Vossen, 2007). In India, the olive fruit is commonly referred to as “Jaitoon” or “Jaitooni” (Bhardwaj & Gupta, 2019). These names are derived from the Hindi language and are used to denote both the tree and its fruit. The olive tree has a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 46 (Besnard et al., 2008). This indicates that each cell of the olive tree contains 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs. Understanding the chromosome number is essential for genetic studies and breeding programs as it helps in comprehending the genetic diversity and variability of the olive fruit.

Importance

The production of olive fruit in India has gained significant importance in recent years due to various factors. Firstly, olive fruit is a valuable source of edible oil. Olive oil is renowned for its health benefits, being rich in monounsaturated fats, antioxidants, and vitamins (Vossen, 2007). The cultivation of olive fruit provides economic opportunities for farmers and contributes to the country’s agricultural diversification.

Introduction

Pear (Pyrus communis L.) is one of the most important temperate fruit crops after apple in the family Rosaceae. It is diploid and a member of the Pomoideae subfamily, having chromosome number 2n=2X=34. The pear is a tree and fruit in the Rosaceae family, which also includes apples and quince. The pear has a fibrous center and is a mildly sweet fruit. It is abundant in dietary fiber, plant components, and vital antioxidants. Pears come in a variety of shapes, including round, oval, and elongated, and they can be smooth or bumpy in texture. The fruit has a thin skin that can be smooth or rough, and it ranges in color from green to yellow to red. The flesh of the pear is white, yellow, or cream-colored and is juicy and sweet, with a slightly gritty texture. Later in the 19th century, better pear cultivars were introduced in India. Pears come in second place among temperate fruits in India in terms of both production and land area. Due to the pear’s extensive climatic and soil tolerance, it is grown in both temperate and subtropical climate.

Importance and composition and uses

Pears are a good source of fiber and vitamin C, and they are relatively low in calories. Pear fruits are suggested for diabetic patients because of their low sugar content, which also lowers blood pressure and regulates heart rate. The 3.1 gm of dietary fibre it contains are very beneficial for intestinal health. About 27 to 41 mg of phenolics are present per 100 mg of fruit, making it a strong source of antioxidants. Moreover, pears have demonstrated vasodilator capabilities, and their components anti-arrhythmic effects often lower blood pressure and regulate heart rate. Fruits include the folic acid that makes up the vitamin B complex. It contains the glycoside arbutin, which has potential as a treatment for urinary tract infections. The body’s uric acid is helped to leave the body with its help. The pears’ leaves are effective in treating swelling and blisters. Fever, anaemia, and general malaise are also treated with their assistance. A destion can be made from the bark of pears. 

Importance and uses

Walnut is a valuable nut crop that is grown in several regions of the world, including India. The nut is a rich source of several nutrients, including protein, fiber, omega-3 fatty acids, and antioxidants. Walnuts have several health benefits, including reducing the risk of heart disease, improving brain function, and reducing inflammation. They are also used in several industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

Walnuts have been an important food source for humans for thousands of years. In ancient times, they were believed to have medicinal properties and were used to treat several ailments (Martinez et al., 2010). Today, they are used in the food industry to produce confectionery, bakery products, and as an ingredient in several cuisines. They are also used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries due to their anti inflammatory and anti-aging properties (Alasalvar et al., 2010; Bolling et al., 2011).

Walnuts are a rich source of antioxidants, which are important for maintaining good health. Antioxidants help to neutralize free radicals in the body, which can cause cell damage and lead to several chronic diseases, including cancer and heart disease (Alasalvar et al., 2010). In addition, walnuts are an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, which are important for brain health and reducing inflammation in the body (Bolling et al., 2011). Walnuts also contain fiber, which is important for maintaining healthy digestion and reducing the risk of colon cancer (Martinez et al., 2010).

Introduction

The pistachio nut (Pistacia vera L.), a small tree native to Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Iran. The Pistacia genus is a member of the Anacardiaceae family, which also includes the cashew, mango, sumac, and poison ivy plants. The tree yields seeds, which are frequently eaten as food. The genus Pistacia has about 20 species including Pistacia vera, Pistacia atlantica, Pistacia terebinthus, Pistacia khinjuk, and Pistacia lentiscus (Parizi et al., 2016). Western Asia is the pistachio nut home region, and traders brought them to the Middle East, the Mediterranean nations, and Europe. Pistacia vera L. is the only species in this genus commercially grown for edible nuts. It was probably first grown in areas close to where it grew wild, as remains of pistachio nuts dating to the 6 millennium BC have been discovered in both Afghanistan and south-eastern Iran in recent times. Pistachio cultivation progressively spread to the West from the old Persian Empire, where it was widely grown. the word “Pistachio” etymology most likely stems from the Avestan word “pistak” from ancient Persian (Mandalari et al.2022).

Health benefits

In pistachio nuts more than 50% of the fat is unsaturated. There are also 20% proteins, 20% complex carbs, and pro-vitamin A. Dried fruit pistachios nut has the highest potassium content that is very good for health. It is also great supplier of energy, magnesium, phosphorus, and iron. The heart’s functioning can benefit from the consumption of this fruit. Moreover, it participates in cell metabolism, and the potassium it contains controls the water content of the cells. The production of hemoglobin and myoglobin depends on iron, consumption of pistachio nuts fulfill the iron requirements. It contributes to cellular respiration, intellectual growth, and immune system amplification. A crucial component of bones and teeth is phosphorus. Moreover, magnesium aids in the formation of bones and the production of proteins. This nut is good source of phosphorus and magnesium also.

Introduction

Plum, scientifically known as Prunus domestica, is a popular fruit-bearing tree belonging to the Rosaceae family. Renowned for its delicious and versatile fruits, plum cultivation has a long history that spans different cultures and regions. Plums are enjoyed worldwide both in their fresh form and processed into various culinary delights. Because of its temperate character, plum is a significant crop in hills, but it is just a modest fruit crop in Punjab and the north Indian plains. Because it requires little freezing and has a shorter juvenile phase, it is ideal for planting as a filler fruit plant in mango, litchi, and pear orchards. There are a few solid-block plum plantations in the Amritsar, Fazilka, Ambala, and Kurukshetra regions as well. Due to the trees’ abundant f lowering, high fruit set, and early ripening habits of varieties suitable for plains, they are extremely productive. A fully developed tree can typically produce 50–60 kg of fruit. Plum trees are deciduous and typically bear fruits during the summer season. The fruits come in a wide range of colors, including shades of purple, red, yellow, and green, with variations in size and flavor. This diversity in plum varieties allows for a delightful selection for consumers, catering to their individual preferences.

Introduction

Raspberry, scientifically known as Rubus idaeus L., belongs to the family Rosaceae. It is also known as “red raspberry” or “European raspberry,” and its chromosome number is 2n=14. Raspberry is an important and popular fruit crop due to its rich flavor, high nutritional value, and various medicinal properties. Raspberry is rich in vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, and antioxidants, making it a valuable component of a healthy diet (Rahman et al., 2020). Raspberry is widely used in the food industry for jam, jelly, juice, ice cream, and other processed products.

Origin and Distribution

Raspberry is believed to have originated in Eastern Europe and Western Asia (Farrar, 2016). Raspberry was introduced to India during the British era and was initially cultivated on a small scale in the hilly regions of the country. Today, raspberry cultivation has spread to various parts of India, including Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim. The major raspberry-growing states in India are Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.

Introduction

Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) is a perennial herb that belongs to the Rosaceae family (Bayat et al.2019). Strawberry is sweet and has a distinct fragrance. Strawberries are a popular fruit that are known for their sweet taste, bright red color, and high nutritional value. It is abundant in several vitamins and nutrients, including carotene and anthocyanins. It is popularly regarded as the important table fruit of millions of people around the globe and well-liked by consumers. Strawberry, which has 98% edible component, is regarded as a whole fruit. typically eaten fresh and raw. They are tasty, healthful, and low in calories. Strawberries grow well in India in conditions that are often temperate in the north, subtropical in the plains, or tropical at high altitudes. The primary reason strawberry production is still in its infancy in India, despite its handsome fruits and palatable flavour, is that it is a perishable crop (Pramanick et al. 2012). The strawberry is a fruit that grows all over the world. The Roman poets Virgil and Ovid wrote about it in the first century, and gardeners have been growing strawberries in England since the sixteenth century (Boriss et al. 2006).

Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.)

Cape gooseberry, scientifically known as Physalis peruviana L. (Physalis edulis Sims) belongs to family Solanaceae. Fruits are enclosed inside a bladder- like husk which turns papery when mature making all seeds inside visible. There are more than 70 species under the genus Physalis. Out of these species only few of them are of economic value. Cape gooseberry is most widely known among these species as it bears superior fruit in comparison to other species. The fruits are good in taste and a good source of minerals and vitamin such as vitamin B complex, vitamin C and pro-vitamin A, rich in pectin.

Species diversity

Cape goosberry is also known by different names in Latin America: capuli, aguaymanto, tomate sylvestre, or uchuba, in Bolivia; uvillain, in Peru; capuli or motojobobo embolsado, in Colombia; topotopo, chuchuva, in Ecuador; uchuva, vejigón or guchavo in Venezuela; capuli, amor en bolsa, or bolsa de amor, in Chile; cereza del Peru in Mexico; teparee, tiparee, makowi, etc., in India. Physalis pruinose L. commonly known as strawberry tomato, husk tomato or ground cherry is also grown for its small yellow fruits. In mild-temperature climates, the fruit is used to make sauce, pies, and preserves. Unripe druits are toxic. In Australia, the plant is thought to have caused illness and death in cattle.

Introduction

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is an important temperate nut crop grown in various parts of the world. It belongs to the family Juglandaceae and is commonly known as English walnut, Persian walnut, or common walnut. It has a chromosome number of 2n=32 (Kalia et al., 2016). Walnuts are a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids (Husain et al., 2013). The walnut fruit is a drupe that contains a nut surrounded by a hard shell. The nut is enclosed in a fleshy green or brownish-yellow hull, which splits open when the fruit is ripe. Walnut is an important nut crop due to its high nutritional value and medicinal properties. The kernel of the walnut is rich in protein, fat, and minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium. It also contains vitamins B1, B2, and E. In addition to being used as food, walnut has been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various ailments such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer (Liu et al., 2017). Walnut oil is rich in linoleic acid and is used in the production of cosmetics and soap. The leaves and bark of the tree are used in traditional medicine to treat various ailments such as diabetes, fever, and inflammation.

Abstract
Aquatic sustainability is vital for maintaining the health and productivity of aquatic ecosystems. Human activities have significantly impacted these environments, leading to pollution, habitat destruction, and biodiversity loss. Green technologies offer innovative solutions to address these challenges. Key components of aquatic sustainability include biodiversity, water quality, ecosystem health, resource management, and social equity. Aquatic sustainability is crucial for food security, economic benefits, climate regulation, cultural and recreational values, and ecosystem services. Current challenges facing aquatic ecosystems include pollution, overfishing, habitat destruction, climate change, invasive species, plastic pollution, and habitat degradation. Green technologies play a crucial role in addressing
these challenges by reducing pollution, promoting sustainable fisheries management, mitigating climate change, restoring habitats, conserving water, and monitoring aquatic ecosystems. Green technologies such as advanced water filtration systems, nanotechnology, bio-inspired filters, desalination technologies, UV-C light, ozone, eco-friendly wastewater management, integrated constructed wetlands, biological treatment systems, remediation technologies, natural infrastructure solutions, and biodegradable materials offer sustainable and effective solutions for aquatic sustainability.
Keywords: Aquatic sustainability, Pollution, Green energy, Nanotechnology

1. Introduction:- Understanding Good Laboratory Practices (GLP)
1.1 Definition and Core Principles of GLP
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines Good Laboratory Practice as “a managerial quality control system that governs the organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and thus, environmental safety studies are well planned, executed/ performed, vigilantly monitored, properly recorded, reported, and finally archived”. This definition highlights that Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) is a comprehensive framework focused on ensuring the quality and integrity of the entire study lifecycle, rather than dictating the scientific validity of the research itself. The primary goal of GLP is to ensure process integrity and data traceability, which are essential for the regulatory acceptance of safety data for a variety of products. These products include pharmaceuticals, pesticides, cosmetics, veterinary drugs, food additives, feed additives, and industrial chemicals, all of which undergo non-clinical testing to assess their potential health and environmental risks. It is important to note that GLP principles specifically apply to these non-clinical studies and exclude research involving human subjects. The OECD Principles of GLP are internationally recognized and serve as the basis for GLP regulations in numerous countries worldwide. These principles outline the responsibilities of key personnel involved in non-clinical studies, including test facility management, the study director, study personnel, and quality assurance personnel. Furthermore, they establish minimum standards concerning the suitability of facilities and equipment to perform studies, as well as the necessity for comprehensive Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to guide all aspects of laboratory operations. The core principles of GLP encompass a wide range of elements critical to ensuring the quality and integrity of laboratory studies. These OECD principles of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) include: the proper organization team and personnel staff members within the testing facility, the well establishment of a robust quality assurance programme, the better suitability and proper maintenance of various necessary facilities, the efficient management of apparatus, materials, and reagents, the characterization and control of test systems, the handling of test and reference items, the development and adherence to Standard Operating

Contemporary tilapia cultivation is aligned with the principles of circular bioeconomy, aiming to minimize resource inputs while maximizing waste and effluent reuse. This strategy involves closing the loops of various economic and ecological resources as well as decentralizing the production systems for localized production and consumption. Growing concerns about disease outbreaks along with market demands for environmentally responsible and sustainable aquaculture practices are propelling a transformative shift. This shift is characterized by structural advancements in water and effluent reuse through closed-loop recirculation systems that repurpose waste as valuable nutrients. Today one of the pivotal trends in tilapia farming is the adoption of circular bio-economy principles which is exemplified by diverse recirculation systems including Biofloc Technology (BFT), Partitioned Aquaculture Systems (PASs), Recirculatory Aquaculture Systems (RAS), bio RAS, , In Pond Recirculation Systems (IPRS) and Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture (IMTA). The trajectory of tilapia culture often aligns with the trajectory of urban agriculture as well as waste fermentation. Low-demand water recirculation systems are poised to spearhead a disruption in industries across five key sectors (material, information, energy, transport, and food/ health) that rely heavily on extraction. This transformation is driving the transition towards a more sustainable and localized model.

The age-old struggle between crops and diseases has been a perpetual challenge for farmers and agricultural stakeholders worldwide. Weather patterns play a pivotal role in the development and spread of crop diseases, making it essential to integrate weather wisdom into crop disease management strategies. By analyzing historical and real-time weather data, farmers and agricultural experts can anticipate, prepare for, and respond to disease outbreaks more effectively, minimizing crop losses and ensuring food security. Effective crop disease management based on weather wisdom involves a three-pronged approach. It begins with caution, where historical climate data and disease surveillance reports are analyzed to identify potential correlations between weather patterns and disease outbreaks. This information helps farmers and agricultural experts to recognize early warning signs of disease susceptibility, such as temperature fluctuations, precipitation patterns, and humidity levels. For instance, excessive rainfall can lead to an increased risk of fungal diseases, while drought conditions can exacerbate bacterial diseases (Fig. 13.1). The confirmation phase involves closely monitoring real-time weather forecasts and disease surveillance data to detect early warning signs of an impending disease outbreak. Advanced technologies, such as satellite imaging and sensor-based monitoring systems, provide valuable insights into crop health and disease development. By combining these data streams, farmers and agricultural experts can confirm the presence of disease-causing pathogens and take targeted action to prevent their spread. Finally, a call to action is triggered, prompting farmers and agricultural stakeholders to implement integrated disease management strategies. These may include cultural practices, such as crop rotation and sanitation, biological controls, such as introducing beneficial microorganisms, and chemical controls, such as targeted fungicide applications. By leveraging weather wisdom, farmers can optimize their disease management strategies, reducing the reliance on chemical pesticides and minimizing environmental impact. By embracing weather wisdom, crop disease management can be transformed from a reactive to a proactive approach. Farmers and agricultural stakeholders can stay one step ahead of disease-causing pathogens, protecting their crops and ensuring a stable food supply. As we explore the intersection of weather wisdom and crop disease management, it becomes clear that this integrated approach holds tremendous potential for revolutionizing the way we predict, prevent, and respond to crop diseases.
13.1 Caution
Approaches to Caution Farmers on Crop Diseases, Information Generation, and Communication using Mobile Technology To caution farmers on crop diseases, it is essential to adopt a multi-faceted approach that leverages mobile technology to generate and disseminate critical information. This approach should focus on empowering farmers with timely and accurate information, enabling them to take proactive measures to prevent and manage crop diseases. Firstly, a robust disease surveillance system should be established to monitor and track crop disease outbreaks in real-time. This can be achieved through a network of field scouts, extension agents, and research institutions that report disease incidence and severity to a central database. Mobile-based applications can be used to facilitate data collection, transmission, and analysis, ensuring that critical information is captured and disseminated promptly. Once disease outbreaks are detected, mobile technology can be harnessed to generate and disseminate alerts to farmers. This can be achieved through Short Message Service (SMS) or voice messages, which can be sent to farmers’ mobile phones, warning them of potential disease risks and providing advice on management strategies. Mobile-based applications can also be used to push disease alerts, advisories, and management recommendations to farmers, ensuring that they receive critical information in a timely and accessible manner. To enhance the effectiveness of these alerts, it is essential to ensure that they are tailored to the specific needs and contexts of farmers. This can be achieved

The effects of weeds, pests, and diseases result in the loss of between 20 40% of the world’s potential agricultural yield each year. By reducing crop loss from pest infestations, the use of pesticides can boost agricultural output by 25–50%. Only 25 to 30 percent of the area that is now being grown is protected by pesticides. Because domestic pesticide use is among the lowest in the world, there is significant room for expansion. India uses 0.6 kilogramme of pesticides per hectare compared to the global average of 3 kg per hectare. The use of crop protection products must be enhanced. There are now 1175 compounds accessible in the world, however only roughly 292 of them are registered in India.

Advantages of Using Pesticides

Pest are an ecological problem and therefore our control strategy must be ecologically sound. Modern agriculture is a combination of both and human intervention is necessary, whether it be pulling out weeds by hand, use of pesticides or genetic engineering. Control methods evolve over time as knowledge and techniques improve. This includes the development of chemical means of control which become very important because of a number of advantages

Pest are an ecological problem and therefore our control strategy must be ecologically sound. Modern agriculture is a combination of both and human intervention is necessary, whether it be pulling out weeds by hand, use of pesticides or genetic engineering. Control methods evolve over time as knowledge and techniques improve. This includes the development of chemical means of control which become very important because of a number of advantages

During recent time, world agriculture is in search of sustainability in farming. However, it is tedious job for the developing countries because of poor input management and degradation of resources, ever-growing human population and increasing demand for food and livestock feed, and shrinkage of land and other natural resources.

ABSTRACT

Due to the exorbitant price of the popular gelling agent agar, Plant Tissue Culture (PTC) has gradually become a costly technique in recent times. So, alternative sources of agar needs to be popularized which at one hand should be able to meet all the positive properties of agar and on the other hand be cost effective as well. The seed husk obtained from Plantago ovata Forsk. is such an alternative which was successfully used as a gelling agent for media preparation in PTC experiments for in-vitro shoot and root development in Nicotiana tabacum L. and Ocimum gratissimum L. The nodal explants were grown in MS basal medium (MSo) supplemented with 3% sucrose and were gelled with progressive concentrations of isabgol husk to ascertain the optimum concentration for better survival and growth response, while 0.8% agar acted as a negative control. The response of the explants on media gelled with husk was compared to that of media gelled with 0.8% agar. It was inferred that 0.3% husk in the medium was optimum for best growth response which was comparable to that of agar. Consequently, the estimated cost of a liter of MSo reduced by almost Rs.61.15/- (compared to Himedia’s Agar) to Rs.177.57/- (compared to Sigma’s Agar) after using isabgol seed husk as a gelling agent in media preparation.

Abstract

Milk is unique in its nutritional composition and it is the secretion of mammary gland with all the nutrients to nourish the young ones. Milk is a widely consumed drink because it provides essential macro and micronutrients and so called as complete food. Humans, not only the infants but also the adults, are the only species that drink the milk of another species, particularly cow’s milk. But cows’ milk has a different in composition and contains in excess of nutrients than human milk. This unnecessary excess nutrients leads to adverse and allergic effects on human health. One of these is milk protein allergy and it is an increasing health care concern. In medicine, the term cow’s milk allergy (CMPA) is only used to describe reactions involving the immune system, while other reactions are normally called cow’s milk intolerance. The feeding of cow’s milk has adverse effects on infants and young children. There are various methods and tests to identify the CMPA and its diagnosis can be achieved by skin or blood tests. Several efforts have been done to reduce the allergic reaction of cow milk proteins and various technological processes have been applied. The treatment of food allergy should be nutritional and is based on the elimination of diet or, in the case of infants, on the use of hypoallergenic or “HA” formulas, diets and best alternatives to cow milk like some Extensively Hydrolyzed Formulas (EHFs) based on whey, casein or another protein source, and by amino acid-based formulae (AAF), Soy protein-based formulas, donkey milk, camel milk etc.

These products were originally flavoured with the herb marshmallow but a modem marshmallow is a foam that has been stabilised by a gelling agent. The traditional material for marshmallows is egg albumen which acts both as a foaming and gelling agent - this gives light, soft gel. Gelatine is now more commonly used, and once again can act as both a whipping and gelling agent. A gelatine marshmallow is soft and rubbery but heavier than an egg albumen one. Further gelling agents, e.g., pectin, agar and starch all give a soft, short textured gel. These gelling agents have the advantage of being vegetable products but have the disadvantage of normally needing a whipping agent as well. Enzyme-modified soya products have also recently become available for this use.

Methods of Marshmallow Manufacturing:

Aeration is the addition of oxygen or air containing oxygen to water. Any aquatic species important for commercial purpose requires oxygen. Even photosynthetic plants need oxygen when it is dark.

2.1 Need of aeration

Rise in atmospheric temperature causes increased rate of biological degradation of organic matters and subsequent depletion in dissolved O₂ concentration in water.

Age old practice of photography was taken with still camera in parallel direction, not aerially scan or snapping which really present wider prospective of any object or places in rearranging or planning skilfully in two dimensional working. Earlier aeroplane played a important role in over head condition to capture snaps but again accuracy and angle of camera limited the works because these photographs were diagonally or trigonally not matched the reality of ground.

Introduction

Although both maps and aerial photos present a “bird’s-eye” view of the earth, aerial photographs are NOT maps. Maps are orthogonal representations of the earth’s surface, meaning that they are directionally and geometrically accurate (at least within the limitations imposed by projecting a 3-dimensional object onto 2 dimensions). Aerial photos, on the other hand, display a high degree of radial distortion. That is, the topography is distorted, and until corrections are made for the distortion, measurements made from a photograph are not accurate. Nevertheless, aerial photographs are a powerful tool for studying the earth’s environment. 

Because most GISs can correct for radial distortion, aerial photographs are an excellent data source for many types of projects, especially those that require spatial data from the same location at periodic intervals over a length of time. Typical applications include land use surveys and habitat analysis. 

This unit discusses benefits of aerial photography, applications, the different types of photography, and the integration of aerial photographs into GISs.

ABSTRACT

Airborne geophysical methods are presently used all over the world to support mineral exploration by providing basic geological information to supplement existing geological maps. The popularity of airborne geophysics is due to its lower cost for unit of area surveyed, as compared to all other methods of exploration. South India has been extensively covered by high altitude regional aeromagnetic surveys jointly by GSI and NRSA, low altitude multi-sensor surveys by foreign agencies, viz. M/s. Parsons, U.S.A. (Operation Hard rock Project) and BRGM/CGG, France, on contractual basis for GSI and by GSI (Twin Otter surveys) in selected belts and low altitude aeromagnetic surveys by NGRI in the SW part of the Cuddapah basin and the adjoining crystallines. Integrated studies of geophysical (airborne and ground), geological and remote sensing data have greatly helped not only in augmenting the geological knowledge of the region, but also in identifying several metallic prospects/ deposits. The present paper illustrates several case studies in demonstrating the utility of aerogeophysical data in geological mapping (identifying lithologies, structures and basement characteristics) and locating metallic prospects/ deposits.

1 Inflammation of peritonium is called

a) Peronitis b) Peritonitis

c) Laminitis d) Oophonitis

1. Introduction

Afghanistan imperiled by decades of war, is  now a country on the rebound. With the days of relative peace up on the Afghan people, resources are being gathered and projects put onto place, in an effort to revitalize the previously stagnant economy. The rehabilitation of the agricultural economy in Afghanistan depends to a large extent on whether Afghanistan’s Agricultural Sector will be able to recover from the effects of war, serious consecutive droughts and a multitude of endemic crop/ livestock diseases. Afghanistan is a pastoral country with more than 85 per cent of the land area incapable of growing even a narrow range of crops, thus being largely rangeland.  Agriculture produces food, provides food security, enhances crop production, generates cash incomes for rural and urban populations, provides fuel and transport, and produces value added goods which can have multiplier effects and creates a need for services.  Furthermore, agricultural diversity production and income provide year-round employment, and spread risk. Livestock also form a major capital reserve of farming households.

Spices are defined as a strongly flavored or aromatic substance of vegetable origin, obtained from tropical plants, commonly used as a condiment. India is known as ‘land of spices’. Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) also known as hot peppers and Capsicums also referred as bell peppers or sweet peppers belong to the genus Capsicum which is a member of the Solanaceae family. The native home of chilli is considered to New Mexico with secondary origin at Guatemala. They are known from pre-historic remains of Peru. Chilli was introduced into India by Portuguese in 16th century. Chilli is considered as one of the major commercial crops of the world. Both green and dried chillies are the important components of our routine diet. Chilli also contains vitamin A, C and E. It will give the required pungency, colour, taste and flavour to our dishes. The presence of capsaicin in chilli is responsible for its pungency and it has medicinal value. The extracted capsaicin is used in pain balms, cosmetics and medicines related to heart diseases. Capsanthin, a pigment in chilli is used for natural colouration to Jams, Jellies and squashes, since it is a natural pigment and no harmful or side effects on human health. Oleoresin is used in pain balms, vapours, etc. Hence, there is lot of demand for chilli oleoresin in the world market. The largest producer of chillies in the world is India contributing 52 per cent of world production, accounting for 11.67 lakh tonnes of production from an area of 7.5 lakh ha with 1550 kg/ha of productivity followed by Nigeria (17%), China (16%), Peru and Bangladesh (6%). India exported 1.8 million tonnes of chilli during 2009 (Reddy, 2010).

Introduction

Aflatoxins are a group of highly subsituted coumarine, of which aflatoxin B1 and G1 are  most  highly hepatotoxic (toxic to liver) to animals. The toxins are produced by some strains of Aspergillus flavus and other species of Aspergillus which develop in many food stuffs, particularly groundnuts. cottonseed, and their cake and flour. Protein concentrates meant for babies as well as adult are now a day  made from groundnut flour and the cakes are used as feed for poultry and livestock. It has been found that even fodgrains such as maize, rice and wheat are attacked by the fungus producing the toxins.

Introduction

The term ‘mycotoxin’ coined in 1962 in the aftermath of death of about 1,00,000 turkey poults in London, due to “Turkey X disease” in 1960, linked to a peanut meal contaminated with aflatoxins. Now, about 300 to 400 toxic fungal metabolites have been identified as mycotoxins, of which some are capable of inflicting deleterious effects to animal and avian health. The most commonly affected feedstuffs are cereals (maize, sorghum, barley, wheat, and rice meal), oilseeds (groundnuts) and oilseed meals (cottonseed meal). There are three major genera of fungi that produce mycotoxins: Aspergilius, Fusarium and Penicillium (Bennett and Klich, 2003). Among these, the Aspergillus species are of much concern as they are responsible for the production of aflatoxins, the most potent fungal toxin causing aflatoxicoses that have detrimental effects on living beings (Barret, 2000).

ABSTRACT

It is essential to prospect wild Zingiber species for soft rot resistance, since the cultivated ginger is monotonously susceptible to this disease. We evaluated the genetic diversity of Zingiber species and their response to Pythium aphanidermatum, the causal agent of soft rot. Diversity of 21 cultivars and three wild accessions of Z. officinale, 84 accessions of five wild species: Z. zerumbet, Z. cernuum, Z. neesanum, Z. purpureum and Z. wightianum and one accession of Hedichium flavescens were examined using AFLP markers. No polymorphism was detected at more than 500 AFLP loci screened in ginger cultivars, which to our knowledge, is the most extreme case of genetic narrowness in a species. Analysis revealed high variability in Z. cernuum and relatively low variations in other species. Strong correspondence was evident between the genetic diversity of a species and its mode of propagation. Selected accessions of Zingiber species were inoculated with Pythium zoospores and the disease progression was scored. The response to Pythium varied from total susceptibility in Z. cernuum and Z. officinale to hardy behavior among Z. zerumbet accessions. The present study provided an estimate of genetic diversity of Zingiber species common in Kerala. Species relationships and population genetic structure were discussed. The monotypic nature of ginger cultivars may hinder the possibility of their identification based on their nucleic acid profiles. The present study identified Z. zerumbet as a potential source of soft rot resistance, which will trigger off the application of genomics tools to access this trait in order to genetically engineer soft rot resistance in ginger.

African leaf vegetables (ALVs) are vegetable species utilized for their leaves and have become a part of the African tradition. This is a dynamic concept that is changing with the African culture and the term ALV embraces not only indigenous, but also indigenised species. These species are very nutritious, and contain high levels of pro-vitamin A and iron. ALVs are often more hardy than the introduced “modern” vegetables. The important role that ALVs have played in African livelihood strategies has been ignored, especially in the last half of the twentieth century. This led to ALVs being seen as a low-status crop, but this perception  started to change during the last two decades. ALVs are entering the commercial market and regaining its equal status in many African countries. ALVs are mostly used as an ingredient in relishes and soups to accompany starchy staples and sometimes meat.

ALVs include species cultivated in farmer fields and home gardens, like  pumpkins and cowpeas, and species harvested from  wild and fallow lands, like eru and cleome. Certain cultivated species have only recently been domesticated after a long history of wild harvesting.  Currently, ALVs are mainly cultivated using traditional farm practices with almost no African countries having formal seed systems. After years of neglect by formal research, more and more research institutions are initiating research on ALVs. Amaranth, cleome, corchorus, cowpea, pumpkins, nightshades, african eggplant, moringa, ethiopian kale, roselle, bitterleaf, taro, slenderleaf and water spinach are listed as the most prominent ALVs in Africa.

Precipitation and agglutination reactions are similar except in that for precipitation reaction antigen must be in soluble form. The precipitation reaction is highly specific and very sensitive for the detection of antigen being capable of demonstrating antigens in dilutions of 1:100,000 to 1: 1,000,000 or more. It is important to bear in mind that antigens used in precipitation reactions are of molecular size not cellular. A soluble antigen reacted with its homologous antibody at the optimum proportions produce an insoluble precipitate. The essential ingredients for precipitation test are soluble antigen (precipitinogen), antibody (precipitin) and an electrolyte (normal saline).
a) Precipitation ring test
The antigen is carefully layered over the antiserum, without mixing so that an interface is formed. Diffusion of each reagent will then occur into the other. If the system is homologous, precipitation will occur at the point in the tube, where the proper ratio of antigen to antibody is reached. Eg: Ascoli’s test for anthrax diagnosis.
In advanced decomposition of animals when cultures would be almost impossible, the precipitation method of Ascoli is used for diagnosis of Anthrax. This method is a mixing of immunized rabbit serum with an extract of organs under examination for the production of a precipitate.
Procedure
1. Grind up organs or blood of suspected animals.
2. Suspend in saline.
3. Boil for five minutes
4. Filter through filter paper and allow to cool
5. Carefully stratify 0.5 ml of this extract on 0.5 ml immune serum in small test tubes.

Agarose gel electrophoresis is used for the fractionation and characterization of nucleic acids. It is a simple and highly effective method for separating, identifying and purifying DNA fragments of various sizes. DNA can be checked for size, intactness, homogeneity and purity by this technique. Agarose is a purified form of agar and forms a gel by hydrogen bonding of the agarose monomers. Increasing the Agarose concentration of a gel reduces the migration speed and enables separation of smaller DNA molecules. Shorter molecules move faster and migrate further than longer ones.

Aim: To study the size of the DNA extracted from the fungal culture.

Principle: Ethidium Bromide added to the gel interacts with the bases of DNA and fluorescence orange when irradiated with UV light.

Agarose gel electrophoresis is the easiest and commonest way of separating, capable of resolving mixtures of DNA fragment that cannot be separated conveniently by other procedures. The purpose of the gel might be to look at the DNA, to quantify it or to isolate a particular band. The DNA is visualised in the gel by addition of ethidium bromide. This binds strongly to DNA by intercalating between the bases and is fluorescent meaning that it absorbs invisible UV light and transmits the energy as visible orange light.

Agarose, which is extracted from seaweed, is a linear polymer whose basic structure is shown in figure.

1. Introduction

The Aquilaria malaccensis (Agarwood) is an Appendix II species of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1994). The species is also red listed under International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and is classified as ‘Vulnerable’ globally but ‘Critically Endangered’ in India (Oldfield et al., 1998; IUCN, 2009) and almost ‘Extinct in wild’ in Assam (Anon., 2003; Saikia and Khan, 2012a). The species due to its multipurpose uses is overexploited which is threatening its existence from the wild (Lee and Mohamed, 2016; Talucder et al.,2016). There are 21 reported Aquilaria species, of which 13 are fragrant resin producers, while the rest are yet to be studied (Lee and Mohamed, 2016; Talucder et al.,2016). Eleven of the domesticated species are A. malaccensis, A. crassna, A. subintegra, A. hirta, A.rostrata, A. beccariana, A. filaria, A. khasiana, A.microcarpa, A. grandiflora and A. sinensis (Zuhaidi, 2016). Species reported from Asia viz., A. apiculata, A. baillonii, A. banaense, A. beccariana, A. brachyantha, A. cumingiana, A. filaria, A. hirta, A. khasiana, A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa, A. rostrata, A. sinensis, A. subintegra and A. crassna are known to produce essential oils (Sulaiman et al., 2015). Only three species i.e. Aquilaria khasiana, A. macrophylla and A. malaccensis has centre of origin in India with A. macrophylla endemic to Nicobar Islands (Anon., 2003; Giri, 2003) and A. khasiana endemic to Khasi Hills of Meghalaya and surroundings (Kanjilal et al., 1982), while A. malaccensis is native to evergreen rain forests in the foothills of northeastern India (Chakrabarty et al., 1994; Saikia and Khan, 2012b) and West Bengal (Barden et al., 2000).

Promotion of perennial crops is a good alternative for food security since they offer more consistant, year-round production without any break. Agathi and Chekkurmanis are the two nutritive perennial greens that can be easily grown in hot and humid tropical climate.

35.1 Introduction

Age and growth studies are vital aspects of modern fisheries because this information is pivotal for fish population and management policies.

Age and growth are important factors in the study of the natural history of fish. Age determination is an ancient practice that aids in systematic studies of fish and f isheries. Age denotes the activities of the organism about its size, whereas growth can be defined as an increase in any dimension of an organism from time or age until maturation. A fish ages as it grows, and vice versa. Fish age determination is important to marine resource management.

After fertilization and zygote formation, in utero development can be divided into two stages, i.e. embryonic and foetal. Embryo period refers to the time between fertilization and the development of organ primordia. During the embryonic period, fast development occurs, and primordia of most organs are established. During the foetal stage, which lasts from the end of the embryonic period until parturition, the body’s systems begin to develop and function.

Ageing of meat is also known as conditioning or tenderising or ripening or maturing and sometime resolution of rigor. It is a process of holding unprocessed meat above freezing point under controlled conditions. By this process we can make muscle soft and pliable thus meat becomes tender. When we keep the meat above freezing point at temperature between 0-3ºC then all those changes occurs which are normally occurs at higher temperature i.e. atmospheric oxidation and enzymatic action of fat, bacterial action etc. When this temperature range becomes below freezing point then it inhibits completely the enzymatic action in the muscles. Ageing is required for marked increase in flavour, juiciness and tenderness of meat. In this process action of enzymes in meat plays key role while bacterial action is not of any importance. Meat tenderness and taste are definitely improved if carcasses or vacuum packed cuts are conditioned after slaughter but paradoxically beef is quite tender just two hours after slaughter and several days of conditioning are required to recover this degree of tenderness.

During the contraction of muscles, thick and thin filaments sliding to each other and decreases the length of sarcomeres. In turn, this decreases the length of fibrils, fibres and the whole muscle. If these muscles remain in contracted length when rigor develops, it causes massive overlap of thick and thin filaments leading to severe meat toughness. It is also necessary to avoid the cooling of meat too rapidly after slaughter, otherwise it cold-shortens and gets tough. If we avoid cold-shortening of muscles during conditioning, it will increase meat tenderness. But with too much conditioning, weight loss, surface spoilage and the cost of refrigerated storage increases.

Ageing of carcasses with little or no fat cover is not recommended by meat specialists. Because these carcasses loose moisture rapidly, loose weight excessively and discolour the meat surface rapidly. In addition, lean meat is also susceptible to deterioration through microbial growth, slime formation by bacteria and mould growth etc. Ageing is important for beef and buffalo meat while pork and lamb do not require ageing because they are slaughtered in the age where they are young and inherently tender. Additionally, the unsaturated fats found in pork fat oxidize during ageing causes rancidity and off flavour. Veal has very little protective fat covering and is high in moisture; thus it does not lend itself to ageing.

Abstract

Indian is rich biodiversity and availability of a variety plants of enhances the interest of scientist for the possible use of plant products as natural herbicides. The emphasis should be to collect the information about such plants from the concerned people who have traditional knowledge about the use of these herbs and then to study scientifically to arrive at conclusions. The study of compounds produced by a plant which inhibit or stimulate the germination and the development of other plants is important for understanding the mechanisms of the ecologicalinteraction. Therefore, there is continuing need to develop and release new phytotoxic chemicals that preserve the environment and enable a more efficient control of weeds, improving crop yield and quality. Ageratum conyzoides a herb traditionally used for treatment of many diseases, releases some potential allelochemicals and other chemicals to the environment which inhibit the germination and growth of neighboring plants. A complete study of its potential allelochemicals may be useful in biological control for sustainable agriculture.

Ageratum is a winter season annual that is grown for its beautiful flowers. It belongs to family Asteraceae. The word “Ageratum” is derived from the Greek words “ageras” meaning non-aging referring to the longevity of the whole plant. Ageratum houstonianum (flossflower, bluemink, blueweed, pussy foot, Mexican paintbrush) syn. Ageratum mexicanum Hort. is a cool-season annual plant often grown as bedding in gardens. Ageratum houstonianum is from Mexico and is named after William Houston (1695-1733), a Scottish physician who collected the first ageratum plants. The flowers are blue in colour (sometimes white, pink, or purple). The ray flowers are threadlike leading to the common name and are used for flower arrangements and potted ageratum plants are used for beautification of the surroundings. Growing ageratum is very easy under suitable climatic conditions. The genus Ageratum consists of some ornamental species, but only a few species have been phytochemically investigated (Burkill, 1985). A. houtsonianum contains essential oil the main constituents were precocene I (23.34%), precocene II (43.99%) and beta -caryophyllene (9.18%) (Menut et al., 1993 and Shahi et al., 1996).

Ageratum is a winter season annual that is grown for its beautiful flowers. It belongs to family Asteraceae. The word “Ageratum” is derived from the Greek words “ageras” meaning non-aging referring to the longevity of the whole plant. Ageratum houstonianum (flossflower, bluemink, blueweed, pussy foot, Mexican paintbrush) syn. Ageratum mexicanum Hort. is a cool-season annual plant often grown as bedding in gardens. Ageratum houstonianum is from Mexico and is named after William Houston (1695-1733), a Scottish physician who collected the first ageratum plants. The flowers are blue in colour (sometimes white, pink, or purple). The ray flowers are threadlike leading to the common name and are used for flower arrangements and potted ageratum plants are used for beautification of the surroundings. Growing ageratum is very easy under suitable climatic conditions. The genus Ageratum consists of some ornamental species, but only a few species have been phytochemically investigated (Burkill, 1985). A. houtsonianum contains essential oil the main constituents were precocene I (23.34%), precocene II (43.99%) and beta -caryophyllene (9.18%) (Menut et al., 1993 and Shahi et al., 1996).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Although ageratum is native to the Americas, Ageratum houstonianum, (floss flower), was known in Europe as early as the late 1600s or early 1700s, being routinely cultivated in European gardens by the 1800s (Johnson, 1971). Locations within which Ageratum houstonianum is naturalized include Australia, south-eastern USA, southern Europe, Africa, China, Japan, New Zealand and some Pacific islands. Ageratum houstonianum is invasive in parts Tanzania. A. houstonianum is naturalised in Kenya at 1500-2780 m altitude, specifically in the highlands: Mau, Aberdares, parts of Laikipia and Nyeri.

Aptitude questions related to ages are commonly asked in various competitive exams, so you should definitely solve few questions for exercise. Now let us go through the different types of statements used in this topic.

Let us find the age of Rakesh by understanding his statement. Let us take the kid’s current age as X. So as per statement given by him, X = 1.5(X – 10). Solving for X, we get the value of X as 30. Hence current age of Rakesh’s son is 30 years.

Principle
The principle of the test is that antibodies possess two antigen-binding sites that will attach specifically with the antigenic determinants on the surfaces of the bacteria, cells or particles. Under suitable conditions one antibody molecule will combine with the determinant group on the surfaces of two bacteria and in this way a lattice is formed. These lattices are generally visible with the naked eye as clumps and they sediment readily due to the large size of the clump.
Pre-requisites for Agglutination Reaction
a) The antigen (agglutinogen) should be in particulate form, which will remain in suspension for sufficiently long time.
b) The antibody (agglutinin) should be directed to the target surface epitope.
c) Antigen – antibody should be present in optimal proportions.
d) An electrolyte is necessary for the reaction to take place and usually the reaction is carried out in physiological saline solutions (0.85% NaCl). Because of the overall negative charge on red cells or bacteria at neutral pH it is difficult for them to come close enough, so that for molecule such as IgG antibodies are able to form a bridge between epitope of two different cells or bacteria. The presence of salt tends to neutralize the charge effects to allow agglutination.
Plate Agglutination Test
This is employed to screen sera within a short period for preliminary testing.
Materials
• Brucella abortus coloured antigen
• suspected serum
• glass plate.

9.1.AGMARK

‘Ag’ means agriculture and ‘mark’ means certification mark.

Certifying agency: Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Government of India

Effective region: India

Effective since: 1986

Product category: Agricultural products

2.1Introduction

Agriculture includes both self-employment and wage employment. This require precise information about who does what. Majority of farmers have small Land holding and landless labourers. This needs understanding of activity performance of men and women. Gender-based division of labour is universal, but culture and community diversities cause differentiation. Gender, therefore, has to be recognized as the social characteristic that cuts across caste, class, occupation, age and ethnicity. It is gender that differentiates the roles, responsibilities, resources, constraints and opportunities of women and men in agriculture for which precise gender information is the need of the day. Building gender into agricultural development will lead to: Building inherent strength of women and men to mutually learn, Overcoming gender based prejudices etc.

2.2

Importance of Gender in Agriculture Agriculture play an important role in livelihoods of the rural poor and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Agriculture can be the engine of growth and is necessary to reduce poverty and food insecurity. The changes in Agriculture sector generate new sources of opportunities for livelihoods and food security, they also pose significant qualms. Equity distresses are being raised.