eBook Chapters

Agronomy is a branch of applied science deals with the principles and practices of field crops production and management of soil for higher productivity. The term Agronomy is derived from Greek word agros meaning field and nomos meaning to manage.

Norman (1980) defined Agronomy as the science of manipulating the crop environmental complex with dual aims of improving Agricultural productivity and gaining a degree of understanding of the process involved.

In recent times, Agronomy has assumed newer dimensions and can be defined as ‘A branch of Agricultural science that deals with the methods which provide favourable environment to the crops for higher productivity’.

Application of manures and adoption of proper cultivation practices have profound influence in yield and quality of tubers. There crops also need macro nutrients (N,P,K which are primary nutrients and Ca, Mg and S which are secondary nutrients) and micro nutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B) for their maximum yield potenial.

the package of practices vary with crop and again with soil, climate, edaphic and topographic factors, especially with reference to tropical tuber and root crops. The yield can be maximized through good agronomical practice and by adoption of proven recommended production technologies. Soils, climate, topographic and edaphic factors suitable for each crop alongwith salient cultivation practices and production technologies are enunciated for important tuber and root crops in various parts of India.

Introduction
Agronomy, the science of crop management, is a cornerstone of agricultural sciences, focusing on the principles and practices that optimize crop production. This chapter delves into the core principles of agronomy, exploring how these practices have evolved over time to meet the challenges of modern agriculture. As the global demand for food intensifies, agronomy has emerged as a critical field that integrates various scientific disciplines to improve crop yields, enhance sustainability, and ensure food security. The chapter begins by outlining the fundamental principles of agronomy, which serve as the foundation for crop management. It then transitions into an exploration of new concepts and innovations that are reshaping the agricultural landscape. These include precision agriculture, vertical farming, agroforestry, urban agriculture, organic farming, and sustainable agriculture practices, all of which contribute to more efficient and environmentally friendly farming systems. The chapter also discusses the role of digital agriculture, climate-smart agriculture, and regenerative practices in addressing the pressing issues of climate change and food security.
By examining these cutting-edge developments, this chapter highlights the importance of agronomy in the context of global challenges such as food security, environmental degradation, and climate change. The role of agronomy in ensuring sustainable food production and its impact on global warming are also discussed, providing a comprehensive overview of the field’s relevance in the 21st century. In the intricate tapestry of agriculture, where the hands of farmers and the mysteries of nature converge, stands a pivotal discipline that orchestrates the dance of growth and sustenance – agronomy. Rooted in science and guided by the rhythms of the seasons, agronomy is the art of orchestrating nature’s symphony to yield the harvests that nourish the world. It’s a testament to human ingenuity and a profound understanding of the intricate balance between the forces that shape our planet.
At its essence, agronomy is the vanguard of crop production, embracing the ever-evolving dialogue between humans and plants. It’s a discipline that transcends mere cultivation, delving into the profound intricacies of plant life, the dynamics of ecosystems, and the manipulation of natural elements to ensure bountiful yields. It’s a synergy of knowledge that marries the wisdom of generations with the cutting-edge revelations of science, all in pursuit of ensuring the sustenance of humanity.

THE AGRO-ECOSYSTEM CONCEPT

An agro-ecosystem is a site of agricultural production farm, for example- understood as an ecosystem. The agro-ecosystem concept provides a framework with which to analyze food production systems as wholes, including their complex sets of inputs and outputs and the interconnection of their component parts.

Because the concept of the agro-ecosystem is based on ecological principles and our understanding of natural ecosystems, the first topic of discussion in this chapter is the ecosystem. We examine the structural aspects of ecosystems their parts and the relationships among the parts and then turn to their functional aspects how ecosystems work. Agro-ecosystems are then described in terms of how they compare, structurally and functionally, with natural ecosystems.

Structure of Natural Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be defined as a functional system of complementary relations between living organisms and their environment, delimited by arbitrarily chosen boundaries, which in space and time appear to maintain a steady yet dynamic equilibrium. An ecosystem thus has physical parts with particular relationshipsthe structure of the system that together take part in dynamic processes the function of the system.

The most basic structural components of ecosystems are biotic factors, living organisms that interact in the environment, and abiotic factors, nonliving physical and chemical components of the environment such as soil, light, moisture and temperature.

1. The Fraction of incident radiation which is reflected back is called as.................

   a) Short wave radiation

   b) Long wave radiation

   c) Albedo

   d) U.V radiation

2. Hulling percent in Rice crop.........

   a) 60-70%

   b) 40-50%

   c) 80-90%

   d) 20-25%

1.Agronomy is derived from Greek word.
2.Indigenous plough cuts ‘V-shape furrow’.
3.Indigenous plough is a primary tillage implement.
4.The ploughing depth of chisel plough is 60-70 cm.
5.Hoe is an example of secondary tillage implement.
6.Tillage improves soil aeration.

Important Points to be Remember

• Total number of essential nutrient elements required for plant growth -17
• Man made cereal – Triticale
• Father of India’s green revolution – Dr M.S. Swaminathan
• Na, Ve, Ni, Si, Co, Se and I - Beneficial nutrients
• Is added to prevent nitrogen losses from FYM decomposition-SSP

11.1 Agroterrorism

‘Agroterrorism’, also known as ‘agriterrorism and agricultural terrorism’, is a malicious attempt to disrupt or destroy the agricultural industry and/or food supply system of a population through “the malicious use of plant or animal pathogens to cause devastating disease in the agricultural sectors”. It is closely related to the concepts of biological warfare, chemical warfare and entomological warfare, except carried out by non-state parties. It refers to a hostile attack towards an agricultural environment including infrastructures and processes in order to significantly damage national or international political interests.

The terms ‘agroterrorism, agroterror and agrosecurity’, were coined by veterinarian pathologist Corrie Brown and writer Esmond Choueke in September 1999 as a means to spread the importance of this topic.

Introduction

The finance sector is undergoing a profound transformation driven by technological advancements, with artificial intelligence (AI) and blockchain technology at the lead of innovation. AI, characterized by its capacity to analyze vast datasets, recognize patterns, and take data-driven decisions has revolutionized various industries, including finance. On the other hand blockchain technology, initially popularized by cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin has arose as a disruptive force in finance, offering decentralized, transparent and secure transactional systems.

The integration of AI and blockchain technology holds immense promise for the finance sector, offering new avenues for efficiency, transparency, and risk management. By combining the analytical power of AI with the security and transparency of blockchain, financial institutions can streamline operations improve customer experiences, and mitigate risks more effectively. However realizing the full potential of this integration requires a nuanced understanding of its complexities, challenges, and opportunities.

Introduction 
In the rapidly evolving landscape of agricultural sciences, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and digital technologies is heralding a new era of innovation, efficiency, and sustainability. As the global population continues to grow and the impacts of climate change become increasingly pronounced, the demand for sustainable food production systems has never been more critical. AI and digital technologies are emerging as powerful tools to address these challenges, offering unprecedented opportunities to enhance food security, improve resource management, and build resilience against climate-related disruptions. AI-driven solutions, such as predictive analytics, machine learning, and precision agriculture, are transforming the way farmers cultivate crops, manage livestock, and optimize supply chains. These technologies enable real-time decision-making, allowing for more efficient use of resources such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides, while also reducing the environmental footprint of agricultural practices. The application of AI extends beyond the farm level, influencing every aspect of the agricultural value chain, from seed selection to post-harvest processing, distribution, and market access. The advent of the Internet of Things (IoT), coupled with advanced sensors and robotics, has further revolutionized agriculture by enabling the continuous monitoring of environmental conditions, soil health, and crop performance. IoT devices collect vast amounts of data, which, when analyzed using AI algorithms, provide actionable insights that empower farmers to make informed decisions. This data-driven approach not only enhances productivity but also contributes to sustainable farming practices by minimizing waste and optimizing resource allocation. Moreover, digital platforms and mobile technologies are bridging the gap between farmers and critical information, making it easier to access weather forecasts, market trends, and expert advice. These technologies are particularly transformative in developing regions, where they can provide smallholder farmers with the tools and knowledge needed to improve their livelihoods and contribute to food security. Additionally, blockchain technology is emerging as a solution for enhancing transparency and traceability in the food supply chain, ensuring that consumers have access to safe and ethically produced food.

Introduction 
The evolution of health care since 1950s has been attributed to artificial intelligence (AI). Remarkable advances in the health sector are being made particularly after the years, following 2010, thanks to AI technology. The significance of AI as a game-changer in healthcare has tremendously grown together, with its accompanying range of challenges, opportunities, and reward. There is increasing utilization of AI across public health activities including biomedical research with its capacityto reduce medical errors and improveaccess to care. The efficiency and ability of AI to analyse large volumes of data in different medical fields so as to identify diseases and guide treatment plans has turned it into an area of significant impact in clinical decision-making. Machine learning as well as data analytics are examples of AI technologies employed in monitoring, diagnosis, treatment and measurement of risks/benefits thereby transforming various healthcare processes. It is revolutionizing medical practices in several areas such as diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation and surgical operations [Tagliaferri et al., 2020]. Studies have found that, the use of AI has improved patient outcomes and simplified management duties, resulting to an efficient health service delivery system. As the influence of AI continues to grow, understanding its implications, benefits, and challenges becomes essential for healthcare professionals and policymakers alike.

Introduction

AI plays a key role in management effectiveness and adaptation, especially in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) facing evolving markets (Lemos S. I. C., et al., 2022). Designing AI-based management frameworks enhances companies’ economic activities through data analysis and informed decision making (Emine, Kalender., 2023). Academic research shows a growing interest in AI in management, with a focus on effective adoption practices and potential areas for development (Jbid, Arsenyan., Anke, Piepenbrink. 2023). Artificial intelligence (AI) significantly influences decision-making processes in management by enhancing rationality, efficiency, and fairness. AI, through machine learning and big data analysis, reduces managerial bounded rationality, enabling a shift from satisficing to optimizing decision making modes (Shtepa, S., et. al., 2023). In human resource management AI-enabled interview analysis improves candidate selection by uncovering hidden patterns and mitigating biases, leading to more objective decisions (Rajneesh, Panwar. 2023). Additionally, by increasing productivity, efficacy and creativity, the incorporation of AI into business strategy transforms decision-making; nonetheless, ethical considerations and human oversight are essential for responsible implementation (Gonesh, C., et. al., 2023).

Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools have rapidly transformed the way we work, learn, communicate, and solve problems in the 21st century. From automating routine tasks to assisting in complex decision-making, AI tools are becoming an essential part of modern life and professional environments. These tools use technologies such as machine learning, natural language processing, computer vision, and data analytics to perform tasks that traditionally required human intelligence. As a result, AI is not only increasing productivity but also changing the nature of work across industries. AI tools are software applications or platforms that use artificial intelligence to perform specific functions such as content creation, data analysis, customer support, language translation, image generation, video editing, coding assistance, and workflow automation. Today, AI tools are used in education, healthcare, business, marketing, finance, engineering, journalism, and many other fields. For example, students use AI tools for research, writing, and learning new concepts; businesses use AI for customer service chatbots, data insights, and marketing automation; and designers use AI for image and video creation.

AI-based content creation refers to the use of Artificial Intelligence technologies to generate, edit, optimize, and publish content automatically or semi-automatically. Content can include text, images, videos, audio, presentations, reports, emails, and social media posts. AI content creation tools use technologies such as Machine Learning, Natural Language Processing (NLP), Computer Vision, and Deep Learning to create content that looks like it was created by humans. In the modern digital world, content plays a very important role in education, business, marketing, communication, and entertainment. Earlier, content creation was completely manual and required a lot of time, effort, and human resources. Writers, designers, editors, and analysts had to work for many hours to create a single report, article, or presentation. But now, with the help of AI tools, content can be created in minutes instead of hours

1. Introduction
Every part of life is susceptible to continual change, and one of humanity’s primary goals is to manage these changes for our advantage. This is particularly true in the fields of medicine and pharmacology. These fields concentrate on the synthesis or discovery of chemical combinations and substances, as well as their use in the treatment of psychological and physical ailments. Drug product manufacturing has been governed for many years by a regulatory framework that tests raw materials, in-process materials, end-product features, and batch-based operations, and sets process conditions to ensure the quality of finished goods (Patel & Shah, 2022).
1.1. Drug Discovery
Drug discovery is a multi-step process that takes a lot of time and effort. From the earliest known civilizations, plants, minerals, and animal parts have been used as remedies. As knowledge expanded, so did the methods for finding new drugs. The first step is identifying the biological target, which can be proteins, RNA, or DNA, that causes the disease. The next step is screening molecules that can interact with the target or Hit compounds. “Hits”—new molecules with promise for use in medicine—can be natural products, compounds produced by computational chemistry, compounds discovered by chemical library screening, compounds from combinatorial chemistry, or compounds originating from pharmaceutical biotechnology. The chemical structures and drug properties of the Hit compounds are then optimized and assessed in vitro and in vivo to obtain Lead compounds. A lead compound needs to have a well-established structure and mode of operation. In order to make the lead chemical a safe medication candidate for human clinical trials, it is further refined (Figure 1). In the preclinical phase that follows, the drug candidate’s dissolution, transport, catabolism, and excretion in animals, as well as safety and dosage concerns, are further investigated (Guan & Wang, 2024) (Leal, 2020)

Selection is an important activity in all the breeding programmes. Different types of selections i.e. mass selection, progeny selection and cyclic selection etc. are used depending on the mode of pollination of the crop species, the predominant gene action and the breeding objectives. The efficiency of selection largely depends on the extent of genetic variability present in the population and the heritability of the character. Selection is more effective for character with high heritability than those having low heritability. Breeding for higher or better yield is the breeding objective for most of the breeding programmes, but it has low heritability. Yield is considered to be complex or super character which is influenced by many components or contributing traits both in positive and in negative directions. Due to the fact that it has low heritability, selection is done for the yield contributing traits so that yield may be increased through selection. Prior to selection for yield contributing traits, it is always beneficial to study the extent and type of relationship between the character and yield. There are different procedures which aid in the isolation of superior yielding genotypes from genetically variable populations by providing information on indirect selection for yield. These methods are discussed in the following content.

21.1 Introduction

The air (=gas or swim) bladder, also known as the fish maw, is a tough sac-like structure with an overlying capillary network. It develops as an outgrowth from the oesophageal region and is found in bony fish. It demonstrates a wide range of development, structure, and function in various fish. It is usually a hydrostatic organ that controls buoyancy, allowing the body to remain at the current water depth without having to expend energy swimming. It is similar to a diver’s buoyancy compensation device (BCD). It also serves as a resonating chamber for producing or receiving sound and is used as an air-breathing organ.

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials into the atmosphere that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment. The concern to determine the importance of the airflow as a possible source of contamination in dairy and food industry is growing, because the airborne dust particles can introduce foreign matter including microbial contaminants into the dairy products. Maintenance of air quality in a dairy factory plays an important role and is very much monitored by controlling the temperature, humidity and particle concentration. Air quality control is required for the comfort and safety of employees. To reduce the possibility of contamination in products it is necessary to impose additional controls on air quality. Airborne contamination can be controlled by air filtration.

Any undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological properties of air is called air pollution. Air pollution interferes with wellbeing of living livelihood. Various human made and anthropogenic sources which deteriorate the air quality are called air pollutant. Some of the common air pollutant are dust, smoke, smog, fog, aerosol, SO2, CO2, O3 and NOx etc.
Sources of Air Pollution
The sources of air pollution are classified into two categories:
1. Natural source
2. Man-made source
1. Natural sources
• Ash from burning volcanoes, dust from storm, forest fires
• Pollen grains from flowers in air are natural sources of pollution
2. Anthropogenic (man-made) sources
They are population explosion, deforestation, urbanization and industrialization whose effect can be explained as fallow:
a) Power stations using coal or crude oil release CO2 in air
b) Also furnaces using coal, cattle dung cakes, firewood, kerosene, etc.
c) Steam engines used in railways, steamers, motor vehicles, etc. give out CO2.
d) So do Motors and internal combustion engines which run on petrol, diesel and kerosene. etc.
e) Vegetable oils, kerosene, and coal as household fuels
f) Sewers and domestic drains emanating foul gases
g) Pesticide residues in air
h) Carbon monoxide and Nicotine from smoking
i) Thermal power plants pollute air by emitted sulphur dioxide and fly ash
j) Fertilizers and pesticides

AIR

Air is a non-homogenous mixture of gases, solid particles, and liquids; It consists of gases and particles with small settling velocity that exhibit stability in a gravitational field. Atmosphere has four major layers Troposphere from 0-17km., Stratosphere from 17-50km., Mesosphere from 50-90 km. and Ionosphere is from 90-100 km. (95% of the air by weight is contained in the Troposphere i.e. from 0-17 km).

12.1. INTRODUCTION

Air is polluted when it contains enough unhealthy particles and gases to harm human beings, animals, plants and even objects such as building and statues. Air pollutant may present as solid, liquid or gas form. Industrial revaluation in the 19th and 20th centuries leads faster increase in concentration of air pollutants in the atmosphere. The most important air pollutants that damage the plants’ growth and development, subsequently the economic yields of crop plants are ozone (O₃), nitrous oxides (NO₂ and NO), carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH₄), peroxiacetyl nitrate (PAN), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), hydrogen fluorides (HF), particulate matters (cement dust, magnesium-lime dust, carbon shoot etc.), smoke etc. Burning of hydrocarbons in motor vehicle engines gives rise to CO₂, CO, SO₂, and NO in varying proportions and ethylene (C₂H₄) as well as other hydrocarbons. Industrial plants release SO₂, H₂S, NO₂ and HF into atmosphere. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is another potentially injurious molecule, can form by the reaction between O₃ and naturally release volatiles (terpenes) from forest trees.

Air is one of the most important constituents of man’s environment. It is calculated that a roan breathes about 22,000 times a day inhaling about 16 kg of air by weight. Air is present everywhere and its entrance from one place to another cannot be checked. Clean and pure air is very essential for the health and survival of man.

Air or atmosphere constitutes one of the integral components of the environment. Among all the environmental components, the air has the highest fluidity. Therefore, the entry of a foreign substance into the air imparts a quick and severe effect on the health of the organisms. Air in the biosphere has a mixture of various gases in a dynamic proportion which is conducive to maintaining the health and sustenance of all living organisms. An alteration in the composition of the atmosphere beyond a certain limit adversely affects organisms’ health, and might even be of more serious consequences for life.

Air pollution, thus, is defined as the occurrence of undesirable gases (e.g., carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, etc.) or particles (e.g., suspended particulate matter) in such concentrations that are deleterious to terrestrial life (vegetation, animals, and human beings) and some physical assets, like buildings, statues, and monuments. Air pollution especially affects the health of human beings living in highly modified (anthropogenic) ecosystems, e.g., cities and industrial areas.

The internal combustion (I.C) engines are functioning on open cycle wherin the air is taken from the atmosphere and the exhaust gases are sent back in the atmosphere. The sequence of operation in a 4-stroke petrol and diesel engine involves Suction compression expansion and exhaust. The precise investigation of I.C engines are very complex due to open cycle system, the working fluid enter and leaves at different condition, quality of fuel and its combustion which make the task more difficult.

ABSTRACT

The coastal zone is environmentally sensitive and economically valuable, which has great attention from researchers especially from geoscientists. Coastal zone has great threat from pollution and natural calamities like cyclones, flood and tsunami. Natural calamity is a frequent phenomenon over coast. Therefore, it is very essential to monitor the changes over coastal ecosystem and geomorphic features like beach, shoreline and sand dunes. In this case, one of the basic requirements in managing and monitoring these features is the topographic data. The recently emerged technique of Airborne Altimetric LiDAR provides accurate topographic data. It is in preparatory stage in India. By this technique, we can collect the data at high speed when disaster happens. This paper attempts to provide a general overview of the role of LiDAR in coastal management.

Airports are important place and points for mass transportation. Lot of public movement, especially higher class, takes place on way to their journey to different destinations. Usually all airports have good architectural structure and utilitarian facilities. As a general practice, good gardens are also maintained around the airport and approach roads besides interior plantscape.

Purpose

The main purpose of developing gardens around airport is to create scenic beauty by using different kinds of ornamentals besides attractive features. In addition, plantation around the airport premises helps in temperature reduction, minimizes dust load, and above all, provides a soothing atmosphere.

Categorization of Areas

Airports are generally laid out in huge areas having many entry and exit points. There are several main roads, connecting roads, parking lots, bus stop, metro rail station etc. Additionally, airports usually have huge indoor areas under cover. Therefore, a broad categorization of the areas is needed for proper planning of landscape and interior plantscaping, as follows.

For ages, man has consumed alcohol to forget his sorrows, to lead him into the realm of happiness. John Keats (1795 -1821), the great romantic English poet, listened to the full-throated music of a nightingale and wanted to become one with that moment of happiness. He thought of taking 'a beaker full of the warm south, of vintage, that has been cooled a long age in the deep delved earth⁷, drinking which he could ' leave the world unseen', and fade away into the dim forest with the singing bird. But Keats was romanticizing the effect of wine on the human mind. A moment later, he decided to give up the idea of taking the assistance of Bacchus and his leopards and switched over to reaching the bird and its music on 'the viewless wings of poesy⁷. This was definitely a wise decision because the alleged euphoric effect on alcohol is a myth. In fact alcohol dulls the brain and retards its activity.

Alcohol is basically a drug. Man consumes it more than any other drug. No form of alcohol, however mild, whether wine or beer or cider, can do good to the human system and health.

It is fallacy to believe that alcohol stimulates the brain. In reality, alcohol depressed the brain. It slows down various centers of control. When alcohol is swallowed, it goes into the stomach where a fraction of the dose enters the blood stream through the blood vessels of the stomach walls. From the stomach, alcohol has to pass into the small intestine. The carbon dioxide in soda water accelerates this flow of alcohol from the stomach into the intestines. This is what makes whisky and soda more dangerous than whisky and water.

Alcoholic Beverages

These are the beverages which are prepared after alcoholic fermentation of sugars by yeast, contain varying amounts of ethyl alcohol (5-42%), and are consumed directly or after dilution in water.

Wine : Product made by alcoholic fermentation of grapes or grape juice unless otherwise specified, by yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and a subsequent ageing process. Alcohol content is 11-14 %, but may be as low as 7%.

Alfred Weber first introduced his famous theory of industrial location in 1909, in his book entitled, Uber den Standort der Industrien and its English translation was published in 1929 as The Location and Theory of Industries. His theory is known as ‘LeastCost Location Theory’ or ‘LeastCost Minimization Approach’. The basic objective of the Weber’s theory is to find out the minimum cost location of an industry.

Algae are a large and diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that contain chlorophyll and carry out the oxygenic photosynthesis.

Study of algae is referred as phycology or algalogy

They vary from cyanobacteria or blue green algae by their eukaryotic nature.

Introduction

Soil algae are not as numerous as bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. Furthermore, these are photosynthetic microorganisms. Recent work has led to a more complete knowledge of the ecology and importance of terrestrial algae. These algae are found abundant in the habitats in which moisture is adequate and light is accessible.

Classification

Soil algae are classified into four major classes:

1. Cyanophyceae (Blue green algae)
2. Chlorophyceae (Green algae)

Introduction 
The increase in the concern over the climatic changes as well as the dwindling fossil fuels reserves have intensified the search for the sustainable energy sources. The algal biofuels garnered the attention because of their fastest growth rates, as well as their capability to grow in a non-arable land, higher lipid content, as well as the capability to absorb the CO2. Therefore, the larger scale implementation of the algal biofuels can face a lot of environmental, economic, as well as the technological challenges which needs further investigations (1). One of the current green energy and renewable alternative answers to the world’s current energy problems is the development of algal biofuel (2). Because algae biofuels are environmentally beneficial, they have been seen as a clean energy source (3). An integrated biorefinery strategy could be applied to bio transform algal biomass into many biofuels, including bioethanol, biobutanol, biogas, biohydrogen, and biodiesel, in order to fulfil the energy requirement. Nonetheless, a lot of an obstacles stand in the way of the development, manufacturing, as well as use of microalgal biomass technology. (4). These problems include the creation of affordable microalgal production systems, efficient microalgal growth systems, effective microalgal harvesting techniques that save energy, effective microalgal extraction methods, and economical and environmentally friendly microalgal conversion procedures. Many microalgal technologies are examined in this chapter, along with their applications, difficulties, case studies, and prospects. (5). Algae are appealing feedstock sources for the manufacturing of biofuels. Algae may be applicable to produce important goods like as nutraceuticals, biodiesel, biogas, as well as bioethanol (6). Biofuels are benign to the environment, renewable, and biodegradable. Algae are very valuable because of their higher lipid content as well as fast development. The largest class of algae, known as chlorophytes, includes both macro- and microalgae and is used in bioremediation, the water treatment, the food production, the medicine, as well as the energy production. We discussed many techniques for planting, harvesting, and processing in this chapter. The selection of high lipidcontaining algae strains, commercial harvesting, high infrastructure, operation, and maintenance expenses, and water evaporation problems seem to be the main obstacles. It will take creative and effective methods to make the manufacturing of algae-based biofuels desirable. Increasing the production of biofuels will contribute to the preservation of natural resources, which will protect the environment (7).

Abstract

Modern world is experiencing energy insecurity because of extreme population pressure and depleting energy resources. Fossil fuels though have highly applauded for contributing to today’s development, are non renewable energy and debated for not sustainable. This has posed serious challenges to the scientific fraternity for finding the suitable alternatives. A cheap, eco-friendly, sustainable or renewable type of energy is visualized for development with added advantage of mitigating green house gases.

1. Introduction
The global demand for seafood has surged in recent decades, driven by population growth, rising incomes, and an increasing awareness of the health benefits associated with seafood consumption. In response, the aquaculture industry has expanded rapidly, making it one of the fastest-growing food production sectors in the world. As aquaculture continues to scale up, the need for sustainable and nutrient-rich feed ingredients has become a central concern. Traditional feed ingredients, such as fishmeal and soy, have significant environmental and ethical challenges. Fishmeal, derived from wild-caught fish, contributes to the depletion of marine resources, while soy cultivation is associated with deforestation and high water usage.
In this context, algal biomass has emerged as a promising, sustainable alternative to traditional aquafeed ingredients. Often referred to as a “superfood,” algae, which include both microalgae and macroalgae (seaweeds), offer a rich source of essential nutrients that support the growth, health, and productivity of farmed aquatic species. Algal biomass is increasingly recognized for its unique ability to provide a wide range of proteins, essential fatty acids (such as omega-3 and omega-6), vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds that are critical to the optimal functioning of fish and other aquatic organisms.

1. Introduction
Metals pollution in water particularly in wastewater has become a center ofconcern due to social changes such as industrialization and urban development(Blaszczak-Boxe et al., 2023). It is in this context that most of the conventionalwastewater treatment fails to remove the heavy metals in question satisfactorilyand that there is a pressing need for new ideas that would be sustainable. Thischapter aims to discuss algal bioremediation as an environmentally suitableprocess for the decontamination of wastewater containing toxic metals.

Abstract

Different algal taxa involved in the formation of lichen/s are presented. To-date 43 algal genera, comprising members of Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta and one genus each of families Phaeophyceae (brown algae) and Xanthophyceae (yellow-green algae) are recorded, based on personal observations coupled with literature. The various algal taxa forming different lichens belonging to various families is presented. The taxa Trebouxia de Puymaly and Trentepohlia Born. amongst green algae; Scytonema Ag. and Nostoc Vauch. Among blue-green algae are dominant genera involved in the formation of lichens. The yellow and brown algae are only of rare occurrence.

Abstract

This paper focuses on the paradigm shift that our information economy is witnessing from generic leadership to electronic leadership in a disruptive, holistic, fast changing and turbulent business environment consisting of algorithms, programs and codes, to track user movement over the digital platform. The organizations need not to choose one best way to lead in order to gain the momentum over its competitor’s. In the digital age, the organizations have started tracking user over web, his movements, his browsing information pertaining to his liking’s and disliking are been used by the leaders in order to strategize and the greatest digital minds are providing support to these organizational leaders for strategizing and flooding user with choices based on his likings. Moreover the future leadership will get more and more personalized and advanced with a conglomerate blend of cutting edge technology, leadership and strategy within the existing paraphernalia. This paper suggests a new leadership model that is the coded model, wherein the leadership gets more and more personalized based on the codes that traps user movements and his behavior over the web.

Abstract
This case study investigates that how HR policies and practices are aligned with the respective business strategy of ABC Ltd. The strategy classification of M. Porter were used to analyze the different approaches used by organizations for competing in the market and the way they use HR policy and practices to support their business strategy. Data collection instrument (questionnaire) has been used for collecting the data form employee as well as HR manager. Based on the qualitative study of various functional managers and secondary data (annual report, press release, websites content etc), this study highlights the internal as well as external synergy of HR policies and practices. Different SHRM models were used to find out the strategic alignment. Study presents number of implication for lubricant industry and HR professional in emerging economy like India.

Alkali soil
 
Alkali soils are those that contain measurable amounts of soluble salts mostly as carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium. 

Principle
Alkalinity of a water sample is can be determined by titrating with standard sulphuric acid. Titration to pH 8.3 or de-colourization of phenolphthalein indicator will indicate complete neutralization of OH and ½ of CO3 while to pH 4.5 or sharp change from yellow to pink of methyl orange indicator, that will indicate total alkalinity (complete neutralization of OH, CO3, HCO3)
Chemicals
1. Phenoplthalein indicator
2. Methyl orange indicator
3. Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
4. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
5. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4
Reagents
1. Phenolphthalein indicator: Dissolve 0.5 g in 500 ml 95% ethyl alcohol.
2. Methyl orange indicator: Dissolve 0.5 g of methyl orange in 100 ml of water and dilute to 1000 ml in deionized or distilled water (CO2 free deionized or distilled water should be use).
3. Standard Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 (0.02N): to prepare 0.1N H2SO4 take 3 ml conc. H2SO4 and dilute it in to 1000 ml of deionized or distilled water. Standardise it against standard Na2CO3.
4. Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 (0.05 N): Take 7g standard Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) dry at 250 oC for 4 hr and cool in desicator then weigh 5.3 g and transfer it a 1000 ml volumetric flask after that fill to mark with distilled water. Solution should be use within 1 week.

Alkaloids are of plant origin and are alkaline in reaction. They contain N as part of a hetercyclic ring. They exhibit pharmacological activity. Presently more than 2000 alkaloids are known. They have a lot of uses in medicine and as  flavoring agents, psychoactive agents, pain killers and as pesticides.

Alkaloids are naturally occurring substances of plant origin that are alkaline in reaction. They are optically active, contain nitrogen as part of a heterocyclic ring and have varying degrees of psychological responses in man and animals. They exhibit significant pharmacological activity. Alkaloids are mostly basic in character but also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Presently more than 2000 alkaloids are known.

Nomenclature of alkaloids
Alkaloids are named by adding the suffix ‘ine’ to various distinguishable features such as sources, physiological action in animals, their properties etc. Thus, 1. The name of the genera of the plants containing them Ex. Atropine (Atropa), nicotine (Nicotiana) etc. 2. The names of the species of the plants producing them Ex. Cocaine (Erythroxolon coca). 3. The common name of the organism producing them Ex. Ergotamine (ergot fungus). 4. The specific physiological activity observed in animals Ex. Emetine (emetic – causing vomiting), narcotine (narcotic-alters mind).

The alkaloids represent yet another large group of secondary plant products. Many, but not all, exhibit important pharmacological properties & some of these have been known for hundred of years. For e.g. Cinchona alkaloids, present in bark of Cinchona spp. have quinine as their main constituent, has been known since 1639 as an effective antimalarial agent.

An alkaloid contains nitrogen, frequently as a part of a heterocyclic ring, and most are as the general name implies, basic. Alkaloids are the naturally occurring basic, nitrogenous, organic, heterocyclic ring compounds mostly of plant origin with physiological and pharmacological properties. At present, the definition is much more pragmatic and includes all nitrogen containing natural products which are not otherwise classified as peptides, amines, non-protein amino acids, cyanogenic glycosides, glucosinolates, cofactors, phytohormones or primary metabolites (such as purines and pyrimidines bases). Even a number of antibiotics produced by bacteria or fungi are therefore included as alkaloids. Alkaloids evolved early in evolution and were already present (200 million years ago) when the angiosperms began to radiate. Today, more than 12,000 alkaloids are known to occur from more than 4000 species of Angiosperms. Ladenberg defined alkaloid as :

“Naturally occurring basic, complex, nitrogenous organic, heterocyclic ring compound of plant origin with physiological and pharmacological properties.”

Chemistry of Alkanes

In living plants, hydrocarbons are universally distributed in the waxy coatings on leaves and other plant organs. Alkane fraction is commonly a mixture of hydrocarbons of similar properties. The qualitative pattern is relatively similar from plant to plant, but there are considerable quantitative variation. Alkanes are saturated long chain hydrocarbons. They are usually present in the range of C to C carbon atoms. Examples are n-nonacosane, C H and n-hentriacontane, C C . In general, odd-numbered carbon chains occur predominantly in the cuticular wax of plants and are substantially indigestible.

How alkanes are “user friendly” !

Following are some points to ponder :

• Alkanes are long carbon chains found naturally in plants and each plant species has its unique compliment of these different alkanes which act like “fingerprints”. Forage intake can be estimated from ‘faecal grab samples’, if the ratio between these endogenous plant alkanes and exogenous alkanes delivered from “a rumen slow - release gelatin capsule” is calculated.

• Alkanes can also be used for determiningdigestibility and characterizing thespecies compositionof thediet, makingalkanes an extremelypowerful tool for dairy research.

• Anenexpensive, reliable and simpletechnique offers tremendous potential for research in the area of low cost dairy production from forages. Such data may be used by “slow–release marker” to estimate intake and digestibility.

• Alkanes offer a potentially simple technique for the animal scientist and it is feasible to estimate alkane concentrations using Near Infra-Red scanning [N.I.R.]. It is a rapid analytical method, thus making alkane technology an extremely ‘user friendly’ tool to be widely adopted on behalf of the dairy industry.

All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on vegetable crops (VC) was started during the IV five-year plan in 1970-71, to provide a national grid for multi-location testing of the vegetable technologies developed by various research institutes and state agricultural universities. The headquarter of the project was at the Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi and the first Project Coordinator (Vegetable Crops) joined the project in July 1971. During 1986, level of the project was elevated to the Project Directorate. Further, in a significant development during 1992, headquarter of the directorate was shifted from IARI, New Delhi to the present day Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR) at Varanasi. In a significant development, in eleventh five-year plan the National Seed Project (Vegetables) was merged with AICRP (VC).

Presently the AICRP Vegetable Crops is a network of 36 regular and 18 voluntary centres. The network is headed by the Project Coordinator and it’s headquarter functions from IIVR (Indian Institute of Vegetable Research), Varanasi, main campus. The AICRP centers are located in different agro-climatic zones of the country. The centers in the network include ICAR institutes, central institutes, state agricultural and traditional universities and a few other public and private research organizations.