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Anthropometry is the study of the measurement of the human body in terms of the dimensions of bone, muscle, and adipose (fat) tissue. It is a branch of anthropology dealing with measurements of human body to determine difference in groups and individuals. The word “anthropometry” is derived from the Greek word “anthropo” meaning “human” and the Greek word “metron” meaning “measure” (Ulajaszek, 1994).

Thrips – Chaetanaphorothrips  orchidii, Thripidae: Thysanoptera

It is a polyphagous feeder that attacks other ornamentals, herbs, fruits, vegetables, grasses, and weeds, but shows preference for Anthurium species. It is a widely distributed species infesting green houses and out door landscapes.

Both adult and immature thrips start feeding within unopened Anthurium spathe. Damage appears as white streaks on the upper and lower surface of the spathe, resulting in deformed spathe and bronzing of the injured tissue with age. In severe cases, spathe  fails to open and the foliage may be deformed with streaming and bronzing and thereby reduced plant growth.

Anthuriums are tropical flowering plants with attractive foliage. These flowers are bewitchingly beautiful with attractive form and long lasting characters making it a favourite choice for flower arrangement and for bouquet making.  Anthurium is a large neotropical genus of 600-800 species belonging to family Araceae. Two flowering species in this genus Anthurium andreanum and Anthurium scherzerianum are extremely fascinating and commercially important.  The flowers of anthurium are popular with flower arrangers because of their bold effect and lasting qualities (Bhatt and Desai, 1989 and Singh, 1995). Together with some of its many hybrids, A. andreanum today forms the basis of a substantial cut flower industry chiefly in Hawaii, where much research is done in its hybridization and cut flower.

Anthurium (Anthurium andraeanum Linden) belongs to the complex family Araceae, is a slow growing perennial that requires shady, humid conditions as found in tropical forests. The name anthurium is derived from Greek word “anthos” meaning flower and “oura” tail referring to the spadix. Thus, anthurium is also known as “tail flower” (Tajuddin and Prakash 1996). Anthuriums are gaining popularity due to higher returns per unit area and their beautiful and attractive long lasting flowers. Anthurium ranks ninth in the global flower trade and commands a respectable price both for its cut flower and whole plant. Commercial production has focused on two major species viz. A. andraeanum and A. scherzerianum. A. andraeanum is grown mostly for cut flower production, the main production areas being Hawaii, The Netherlands, and some other tropical and subtropical countries. A. scherzerianum is sold as a flowering potted plant, with main production areas located in Europe. In India, the anthurium cut flower industry is still in its infancy. At present anthuriums are mostly grown in some small gardens and nurseries. The important states cultivating anthuriums are Assam, Kerala, Tamilnadu (Salem), Karnataka (Coorg) and Mizoram where the favourable climate exists (Agasimani et al., 2011).

Anthurium (Anthurium andraeanum Linden) belongs to the complex family Araceae, is a slow growing perennial that requires shady, humid conditions as found in tropical forests. The name anthurium is derived from Greek word “anthos” meaning flower and “oura” tail referring to the spadix. Thus, anthurium is also known as “tail flower” (Tajuddin and Prakash 1996). Anthuriums are gaining popularity due to higher returns per unit area and their beautiful and attractive long lasting flowers. Anthurium ranks ninth in the global flower trade and commands a respectable price both for its cut flower and whole plant. Commercial production has focused on two major species viz. A. andraeanum and A. scherzerianum. A. andraeanum is grown mostly for cut flower production, the main production areas being Hawaii, The Netherlands, and some other tropical and subtropical countries. A. scherzerianum is sold as a flowering potted plant, with main production areas located in Europe. In India, the anthurium cut flower industry is still in its infancy. At present anthuriums are mostly grown in some small gardens and nurseries. The important states cultivating anthuriums are Assam, Kerala, Tamilnadu (Salem), Karnataka (Coorg) and Mizoram where the favourable climate exists (Agasimani et al., 2011).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Anthurium andreanum Linden Ex Andre is named after a French Horticulturist Edouard Francois Andre (1840-1911) who discovered it in 1876 and described it for the first time. The genus includes around 1000 species (Croat, 1980). Most of them are tropical herbs originating from warm areas of Central and South America (Gantait et al., 2008). The distribution of this genus extends from northern Mexico and the Greater Antilles to southern Brazil, northern Argentina, and Paraguay (Croat and Sheffer, 1983). Most anthurium species are native of tropical rain forests and are primarily epiphytic in nature. Thus, in their natural habitat, they receive ample, frequent water with good drainage. In Brazil, it is noted the occurrence of around 130 native species (Gonçalves, 2003).

In Malaysia, anthurium is mostly grown in Pahang (Cameron highlands), Selangor, Perak and Johor mainly for cut flower production. The Netherlands is the chief supplier of the anthurium in the European market. Hawaii covers 60% export share of Japan and the rest of the west coast of the USA. The Caribbean produces the anthurium for the east coast of United States and Canada. Mauritius is one of the important producer of anthurium and it exports to Japan and Italy. While some eastern countries like Taiwan, Philippines, China and Thailand mainly produce for their local market. In India, anthurium is commercially grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra and north east India. Kerala is identified as the most desirable place for growing anthurium (Singh, 2006).

INTRODUCTION

Anthuriums are a perennial herbaceous plant of great beauty and grown either for their showy cut flowers or for their attractive foliage. They are valued for their colourful long lasting spathe and spadix. The cultivars contribute elegance and attractiveness, which are pre-requisites for quality and floral design. It is also known as Flamingo flower or Flamingo lily. What is usually considered the flower is comprised of a colourful, modified leaf (spathe) and hundreds of small, botanical flowers on the pencil like protrusion (spadix) rising from the base of spathe. Anthurium have been cultivated from many decades for cut flower production. Since the mid 1980’s its popularity has increased dramatically and has now become a popular addition to many foliage growers. The economic life span of anthurium is around 6-8 years.

In India the cut flowers of Anthurium andreanum are cultivated for considerable length of time although still in small scale. Commercial viable production should be estimated of approximately 5 ha, which is far below the market demand. The anthurium is getting increasing popularity in the Indian market and therefore, most of the locally produced anthurium is sold in the domestic market against reasonable prices. Its export possibility appears very promising as the flowers are already exported to the Middle East. The development of main flower distribution centre in Dubai offers important possibilities for Indian floriculture.

Abstract: Anthurium, popularly known as aristocrat of the plant world, is admired for its unique ornamental value. The Netherlands remains the world’s largest grower and primary source of new colours and cultivars to the international market; while Hawaii remains the epicenter for published research on various aspects of anthurium genetics, propagation and improvement. Flower breeders have created numerous genotypes during the millennia of breeding this crop, which has enabled its establishment as pot plant and cut flower industry. Continued breeding and improvement of anthurium focus on floral fragrance, disease resistance, new flower shapes/ colours and improved floral longevity. Wonderful results achieved through interspecific hybridization, multiway crosses, polyploidy breeding and molecular genetic techniques have been discussed. Cultivars are almost exclusively asexually propagated. Anthuriums are cross pollinating perennial shrubs and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Long life cycle of plants, slow seed formation and maturation, slow suckering often pose significant challenges to breeders. Biotechnology has created a new horizon in anthurium breeding. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern anthurium breeders. Future crop idiotype is proposed to continue transformation of this monocot aroid crop during the next millennium.

Introduction

Anthurium is a perennial herbaceous plant of great beauty and grown either for its showy cut flower or for attractive foliage. They are valued for their colourful long lasting spathe and spadix. It is also known as Flamingo flower or Flamingo lily. In India the cut flowers of Anthurium andreanum are cultivated for considerable length of time. Its commercial cultivation is concentrated in North-eastern states and Kerala. The anthurium is getting increasing popularity in the Indian market and therefore, most of the locally produced anthurium is sold in the domestic market against reasonable prices. Its export possibility appears very promising as the flowers are already exported to the Middle East. The development of main flower distribution center in Dubai offers important possibilities for Indian floriculture.

Anthurium is commonly known as anthurium/tail flower/oilcloth flower (Anthurium andraeanum) and flamingo flower/flame plant (Anthurium scherzerianum). The word anthurium is derived from two Greek words viz, anthos meaning flower and aura meaning tail, referring to the spadix. Anthurium plants were growing undisturbed for hundreds of centuries in the rainforests of South America. Samuel Damon, a businessman and politician in the Kingdom of Hawaii brought one species out of hundreds of species of anthurium to Hawaii in 1889 for cultivation in his garden. The plants were introduced by various people in their gardens from Samuel Damon’s garden. It is a tropical ornamental plant valued for its flowers and unusually attractive foliage. In India, it is grown commercially in Assam, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya and Maharashtra. In India, total anthurium flower production is 3230 tonnes with Assam producing highest anthurium production of 2050 tonnes followed by Meghalaya 740 tonnes (Seemanthini and Chandrashekar, 2018). Major markets in the world for per capita consumption of anthurium flowers are Europe (47.80%), United States of America (21.80%) and Japan (16.80%) (Misra and Misra, 2017). In anthurium, various ploidy levels exist like diploid (Anthurium andraeanum and A. hookeri), triploid (A. scandens) and tetraploid (A. digitatum and A. wallisii). Basic chromosome number varies in different species of Anthurium. Most of the Anthurium species have 2n = 30 chromosomes while in some polyploids, it is 2n = 60. However, a few species have 2n = 20 to 124 chromosomes (Petersen, 1989). In Anthurium andraeanum, somatic chromosome number has been found as 2n = 30 + 2B and this species has high percentage of meiotic abnormalities and karyotype differences suggesting its hybrid origin. Anthurium plants need medium care and reach up to a height of 45-50 cm bearing pale white to yellow coloured flowers with orange to red coloured bracts.

This may be defined as the factor present in feeds/ fodders or trees leaves and impair some aspects of animal metabolism, produce adverse biological effect in animal production. These are referred mostly as toxic factors because of the deleterious effects they produce when taken by the animals. The term ‘toxic factor’ however, is misleading because there is an implication that the substances are lethal beyond certain level of intake.

An anti-nutritional factor is a substance which, when present in human or animal foods, reduces growth. Examples are phytate, protease inhibitors (notably soybean trypsin inhibitor) and excessive dietary fiber.

Anti-Nutritional Factors

    ·    Protease inhibitors inhibit the activity of trypsin, chemotropism and other proteases. They are found in legumes such as beans and peas, but also in cereals, potatoes, and other products. Their presence results in impaired growth and poor food utilization.

Introduction

The biological systems on the earth are in a dynamic equilibrium. In this attempt to live comfortably man disturbs this equilibrium in many, one of which is the cultivation of crop plants to meet his requirements for food, clothing and shelter. Intensive and extensive n of crop plants provides not only better crops but also better ties for pests and diseases to attack these crops. The greater loss due to the pests and diseases, the greater the attempt to these damages. Bacteria are one of the important disease since time immemorial. Bacteria are found in every ble habitat. They are unicellular, but display a variety of ‘cal forms.

The present investigation on the botanicals  has been aimed at preparation of different types of aqueous extracts of locally available medicinal plants viz., Datura stramonium (Datura), Ricinus Castor), Vitex trifolia (Nirgudi) and Nerium indicum (Kanher); the study concentration and stability of these extracts at room temperature; and evaluation of their anti-bacterial activities. This study will be helpful to preserve and increase the pest management potency and efficiency of plant derived products.

1. Introduction Ayurvedic texts like Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, have described millets as the staple food useful in managing diabetes mellitus (Sachan Kumar, 2004). Based on the experience of eating these millets for time immemorial, there exists also a strong traditional knowledge about health benefits associated with them. For example, as per an adage in the state of Karnataka, India: “Those who eat rice will grow as a light weight; their body being just like that of a bird; those who eat Jowar will become as strong as a wolf but those who eat Ragi (millets) will be the strongest of them all, plus they would be free from illness (‘nirogi’ in Sanskrit)”! Certain studies from literature refer nutraceutical character of millets, especially, Kodo and Kutki, which in our opinion should help mankind in eradicating malnutrition and hunger while ensuring sustainable supply of food.

Overpopulation in humans and street dogs to some extent is a global problem of significant magnitude, with grave implications for the future. The overpopulation of dogs and cats is becoming an increasing concern in most countries of the world. As the global human population explodes so to do the staggering numbers of many best friends. Not only does this overpopulation cause millions of deaths each year and immeasurable levels of suffering in unwanted animals, these animals can cause significant risks to human health.

Stray animals particularly dogs are source of dreaded diseases like rabies and other zoonoses, resulting in thousands of deaths annually. The management of wild and domestic animal population is step towards controlling the situation and fertility control techniques play a role in this. However, such technology is still in its infancy is yet to be used on a large scale.

Advancements made in immunology and improved methods for the isolation of antigens specific reproductive system have paved the way for the development of antifertility vaccines in the past two decades. These vaccines are generally based on their ability block an indispensable step in the reproductive process.

Introduction

In man’s continued effort to enhance food production, new high yielding crop varieties and new techniques for crop and field management are being constantly evolved resulting in a parallel increase in disease occurrence which calls for their efficient management. Of the various management strategies available for disease management, the chemical strategies have so far dominated our thinking. Over emphasis on chemical control of plant diseases has caused serious imbalances in the agro-ecosystem^1-2.

The shift to exploration of non-chemical strategies is likely to correct the imbalance in our approach and subsequently improve the understanding of Integrated Disease Management (IDM). IDM is defined as ‘a disease management system that utilizes all suitable techniques in a compatible manner to reduce and maintain pest pathogen population at levels below those causing economic injury.’ Fungi are the important group of pathogens.

In continuation of our work on natural pest management agents the present investigation aims at the preparation of different types of aqueous extracts of locally available four Indian medicinal plants viz., Datura stramonium Linn (Datura), Ricinus communis Linn. (Castor), Vitex trifolia Linn. (Nirgudi) and Nerium indicum Mill. (Kanher); study of stability of these extracts at room temperature; and evaluation of their anti-fungal potencies. This study will help to preserve and increase the pest management potency and efficacy of natural products.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants continue to be an important therapeutic aid for alleviating the ailments of humankind. The search for eternal health and longevity for remedies to relive pain and discomfort drove early man to explore his immediate natural surroundings to the use of many plants, animal products and minerals etc for the development of a variety of therapeutic agents. Today, there is a renewed interest in traditional medicine and an increasing demand for more drugs from plants sources. This revival of interest in plant derived drugs is mainly due to the current widespread belief that “green medicine” is safe and more dependable than the costly synthetic drugs, many of which have adverse side effects.

Vitex negundo or Five-Leaved Chaste Tree is commonly known as Nirgundi in India. It is a large aromatic shrub belonging to the Verbenaceae family of plants. It is distributed throughout the greater part of India up to an altitude of 1500 m in the outer Himalayas. It is a gregarious shrub that is found abundant along the banks or rivers, in moist situations, open waste lands and near the deciduous forests. It is widely planted as a hedge plant along the roads and between the roads.

A. Answer the following question

1.    What is ANF?

Ans: The substances that are naturally present in the feed which by themselves or by their metabolic products interfere with the feed utilization (FCR), reduce production and affect the health of the animal are called anti-nutritional factors.

2.    How does lectin cause agglutination?

Ans: Lectins have the affinityfor certain sugar molecules. Hence, it combines with the glycoprotein components of RBC and there bycausing agglutination of the RBC.

3.    Why ruminants are more resistant to gossypol toxicity?

Ans: It is due to formationof stablecomplexeswith soluble protein in rumen which are resistant to enzymatic breakdown.

4.    Why ruminants of Hawaii and Indonesia are not susceptible to mimosine toxicity?

Ans: Ruminants of Hawaii and Indonesia possess ruminal bacteria which can rapidly degrade 3-hydroxy-4(1H)-pyridone (3,4 DHP) and thus are not susceptible to mimosine toxicity.

5.    How saponin form stable foam?

Millets have immense potential of providing nutritional security worldwide and play a pivotal role in food and nutrition economy. The nutritional aspects of millets are comparatively superior from the widely consumed cereals across the globe. With the presence of various essential macro nutrients millets are also enriched with the goodness of micro nutrients as minerals, vitamins and possess various bioactive compounds that portray several health benefits. The nutritional attributes of the millets are accompanied with several antinutritional factors such as tannins, phytates, saponins, trypsin and amylase inhibitors etc. that limit the bioavailability of the essential nutrients and minerals in these wonder grains upon consumption.

A broad class of polypeptides and proteins occur in plants and other life forms, which inhibit the action of proteolytic enzymes and are known therefore as proteinase inhibitors and this includes those which specifically inhibit the important digestive enzyme trypsin. Others inhibit a related enzyme chymotrypsin. The subject of proteinase inhibitors was reviewed by Ryan (1981). The occurrence of these inhibitors has nutritional implications for human and animal feeding as they are found in many important food plants eaten both raw and cooked. The first known plant proteinase inhibitor was the trypsin inhibitor crystallized from soybeans (Kunitz, 1945). Other proteinase inhibitors have since been described in a variety of plants, especially the Graminae, Leguminosae and Solanaceae families. The exact physiological function of proteinase inhibitors in plants is thought to be in plant protection by inhibiting digestive enzymes of invading insect pests or pathogens (Ryan, 1981).

In India, people are mostly vegetarian, depending largely on cereals and pulses, as their staple foods, which provide the main source of dietary proteins and calories. The proteins from pulses are known to be inferior quality, due to the deficiency of sulphur containing amino acids as well as due to other factors like digestibility, availability of amino acids, anti-nutritional factors, etc. The anti-nutritional factors present in this type of food, including their contents of enzyme inhibitors, lectins, flatulence factors, tannins, phytic acid and saponins. Anti-nutritional factors can cause detrimental effects to humans and animal growth and performance by impairing intake, uptake, or utilization of other food and feed components, or by causing discomfort and stress to humans and animals. The anti-nutritional factors mainly occur in pulses and grain legumes and foods and feed material prepared from grain legumes and pulses.

Substance which, from nutritional point of view, interferes with normal growth, reproduction or health when consumed regularly in amount existing in a normal component of diet should be considered as harmful and toxic. A significant part of human population relies on legumes as staple food for subsistence, particularly in combination with cereals. They are unique foods because their rich nutrient content including starch, protein, dietary fibre, oligosaccharides, phytochemicals (especially the isoflavones in soybean) and minerals. Their nutritional contents contribute to many health benefits to human.

Anti-transpirants are usually foliar sprays, although they may sometimes be used more conveniently as dips for immersing the above ground plant parts. Foliar sprays may reduce transpiration in three different ways

1. Introduction

The discovery and development of antibiotics have led to dramatic improvement in the ability to treat infectious diseases with emergence of drug – resistant organisms due to irrational and overuse of antibiotics, failure to complete a course of treatment, genetic versatility of microbes and horizontal transfer of resistant genes among bacterial species had led to antibiotic resistance (Amit and Shailendra, 2006; Aibinu, 2007).The need for alternative antimicrobial agents has renewed the interest on plants as a sources of antimicrobial agents due to their use historically and the fact that a good portion of the world’s population, particularly in developing countries, rely on plants for the treatment of infectious and non-infectious diseases.
 
Syzygium aromaticum

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is the aromatic dried flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae. The traditional use indicates that Clove has several therapeutic properties, such as an aphrodisiac, stomach, carminative, nervous stimulant and tonic. Reports has been documented  on their aphrodisiac, antibacterial, antifungal, nematocidal, anti-toothache, anti-oxidant, analgesic, anesthetic and hypotensive properties. Although in Iranian traditional medication several formulation containing clove have been used as a nervous stimulant and cognitive enhancer. (Mohammad, et al., 2009).

Introduction
The discovery and widespread use of antibiotics in the mid-20th century marked a transformative era in modern medicine, enabling life-saving interventions in surgery, transplantation, and critical care. Diseases once considered fatal became manageable, and the global burden of infectious diseases significantly declined. However, the remarkable success of antibiotics has been increasingly overshadowed by the rapid rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), now recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the most serious threats to global health, food security, and sustainable development. Resistant infections already contribute to longer hospital stays, increased healthcare costs, and elevated mortality rates. Alarmingly, if current trends continue, AMR-related deaths are projected to exceed those caused by cancer by 2050.A pivotal yet often underestimated factor in the persistence and spread of AMR is the formation of microbial biofilms. Biofilms are highly organized, surface-attached communities of microorganisms embedded in a self-produced extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) composed of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids. This matrix not only anchors microbial population but also confers protection against environmental stressors, immune responses, and antimicrobial agents. Bacteria within biofilms can withstand antibiotic concentrations up to 1000 times higher than their planktonic counterparts due to altered metabolic states, enhanced horizontal gene transfer, and activation of resistance mechanisms such as efflux pumps. Biofilms are implicated in over 80% chronic and device-associated infections, including those caused by ESKAPE pathogensAcinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus. These infections are notoriously difficult to treat and often recur, posing significant clinical challenges. Beyond healthcare settings, biofilm formation in livestock and agricultural environmentsexacerbated using antibiotics as growth promoterscontributes to the emergence of resistant strains that can spread to humans via direct contact, environmental contamination, or the food chain.Understanding the multifaceted resistance mechanisms within biofilms is essential for developing effective containment strategies. These include physical exclusion of antibiotics by the EPS matrix, metabolic dormancy, persister cell formation, quorum sensing-mediated coordination, and stress response activation. Moreover, biofilms often consist of multispecies communities, where interspecies interactions further enhance resilience.In response, antibiofilm agents have emerged as a promising frontier in AMR containment. These include natural compounds (e.g., antimicrobial peptides, essential oils), engineered materials (e.g., nanoparticles, surface coatings), quorum sensing inhibitors, efflux pump blockers, and enzymatic disruptors such as dispersin B and DNases. Ecological approaches like probiotics and positive biofilms offer preventive strategies in agriculture and food systems. Importantly, these agents aim to complement antibiotics by enhancing their efficacy rather than replacing them.Despite challenges in scalability, safety, and regulatory approval, antibiofilm strategies represent a paradigm shift in infection control. Their integration into clinical, veterinary, and environmental practicesaligned with the One Health frameworkis essential for preserving antibiotic effectiveness and mitigating the global AMR crisis.

Poultry has grown significantly over the last few decades; nevertheless, as production has increased, the usage of specific medications and feed additives has become essential for illness prevention, treatment, and growth promotion. Around the world, broiler chickens are regarded as one of the main sources of meat. Poultry consumption has increased by more than 100% in the last few decades, from 13% of total meat consumption in 1965 to 28% in 2015. All around the world, but especially in emerging and Asian nations, there is a growing need for chicken meat. The amount of poultry meat consumed worldwide increased from 11 kg per person in 2000 to 14.4 kg in 2011, with predictions that it will reach 17.2 kg per person by 2030.

Introduction

In 1928, Alexander Fleming, a Scottish bacteriologist, made a significant observation while studying bacterial cultures. He noticed that colonies of bacteria on a culture plate had been negatively impacted by the presence of a mold called Penicillium notatum, which had accidentally contaminated the culture. Around a decade later, a team of researchers including British biochemist Ernst Chain and Australian pathologist Howard Florey successfully isolated the active compound responsible for this effect and named it penicillin (Lalchhandama, 2021).

Introduction
The discovery of antibiotics in the early 20th century revolutionized medicine, agriculture, and public health. These compounds, capable of inhibiting or destroying pathogenic bacteria, not only saved millions of human lives but also transformed animal production systems by reducing morbidity and mortality, improving growth rates, and ensuring food security (Phillips et al., 2004). The application of antibiotics in food animals,whether for therapeutic, prophylactic, or growth-promoting purposes,has been instrumental in increasing global meat, milk, egg, and fish production, thus addressing the nutritional needs of a growing population (Darwish et al., 2013; Chen et al., 2019). However, the indiscriminate and excessive use of antibiotics in animal agriculture has created unintended consequences, most notably the presence of antibiotic residues in foods of animal origin and the global acceleration of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) (Bacanli & Basaran, 2019; Shahid et al., 2021). Antibiotic residues in food is the trace amounts of active compounds or its metabolites that remain in edible animal tissues, milk, eggs, and aquaculture products causes significant concerns for both consumer safety and public health. Even when below the maximum residue limits (MRLs) established by regulatory authorities, prolonged exposure may lead to allergic reactions, disruption of the gut microbiome, reproductive and developmental toxicity, mutagenicity, nephropathy, and in certain cases carcinogenicity (Ngangom et al., 2019; WHO, 2020). Furthermore, residues contribute to the selection pressure that drives the emergence and dissemination of resistant bacterial strains in humans, animals, and the environment (FAO, 2019; O’Neill, 2016). The One Health framework highlights these interconnected pathways, recognizing food as a critical link between veterinary antibiotic use and human AMR burden (Robinson et al., 2016). Globally, approximately 73% of antibiotics are consumed in food animal production, with projections estimating a further 11–67% increase by 2030,largely by intensification of livestock and aquaculture in developing economies (Van Boeckel et al., 2015; Tiseo et al., 2020). While industrialized nations have implemented bans on antibiotic growth promoters and introduced robust surveillance programs, most low- and-middle-income countries still facing challenges (Antibiotics, 2021; WHO, 2019). Consequently, foods containing antibiotic residues frequently enter local and international markets, undermining food safety standards and exacerbating AMR risks (Darwish et al., 2013; Antibiotics, 2021). Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a major global public health crisis, directly causing an estimated 1.27 million deaths and contributing to nearly 5 million deaths worldwide in 2019. Recognizing its severity, the World Health Organization (WHO) has identified AMR as one of the top ten threats to global health(Murray et al., 2022). By 2050, global economic losses linked to AMR are projected to reach USD 100–210 trillion, with Asia bearing a disproportionate mortality burden (O’Neill, 2016). Countries like India, with large livestock populations, rapidly growing aquaculture industries, and high human antibiotic consumption, represent critical hotspots where food, health, and environmental risks intersect (Chauhan et al., 2018; ICMR, 2020). Given these alarming trends, understanding the occurrence, detection, and consequences of antibiotic residues in foods of animal origin is paramount. This chapter explores the co-relationship between origin of antibiotic residues and AMR, regulatory measures aimed to safeguard food safety and strategies for prevention and control, framed within the One Health approach.

1.    ———— is a synthetic antimicrobial drug against M. tuberculosis.
    A.    Penicillin    B.    Tetracycline
    C.    Erythromycin    D.    Isoniazid
Ans.    D.
2.    Which of the antibiotic is not used as a food preservative ?
    A.    Pimaricin    B.    Nisin
    C.    Tylosin    D.    b-lactam antibiotic
Ans.    D.
3.    Which of the following bacteria is susceptible to thiophen-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide?
    A.    M. bovis    B.    M. tuberculosis
    C.    M. chelonei    D.    M. fortuitum
Ans.    A.

Antibiotics are substances which are produced by micro-organisms and which act against micro-organisms. It is also defined as secondary metabolites produced by microorganism, which inhibits the growth of another microorganism. Most antibiotics known uptill now are products of actinomycetes and some are from fungi and bacteria. The use of the antibiotics in managing plant diseases, particlulaty the disease caused by bacteria, mycoplasma and ricketsia, is well demonstrated and are thought to be effective means because of their selective action directed towards causal agents not to the infected host. The mode of action of the antibiotics varies depending on site of action which in turn detrmines their specificity towards given target host (Table 12). Some time mixture of antibiotics are in practice in managing the diseases to reduce delay the chances of resistance development against a particular antibiotic by the causal agent. The most useful antibiotic mixture is streptocycline, which contains streptomycin and tetracycline.

Feed accounts for a major portion of farm expenses in livestock and poultry production. Thus, to obtain maximum profitability, it must be ensured that the feed should not only be well balanced nutritionally but economical too. Rising prices of feeds certainly have reduced the profitable nature of broiler farming. For better utilization of feed and to improve feed efficiency, antibiotics were used at sub-therapeutic levels in the animal ration.

Development of antibacterials progressed very quickly and as a result, certain new antibacterial substances were discovered and developed for use as growth promoting agents in livestock and poultry. The antibiotics act by reducing nutrient destruction in the intestine, increasing microbial synthesis of certain vitamins and amino acids, reducing the rate of passage of nutrients in the gastrointestinal tract and reducing the thickness of the intestinal wall. This thinner wall and reduced rate of passage have been suggested as factors favoring efficient absorption of nutrients. It is also reported that the antibiotics also inhibit the bacterial production of ammonia and other harmful nitrogenous compounds such as trimethylamine that reduce the growth of chickens.

Antibodies are a group of glycoproteins having a globular compact structure. They are known as immunoglobulins. On the basis of their experiments, Tiselius and Kabat, in 1939, demonstrated that most antibodies are found in the g globulin fraction of serum proteins. When serum from rabbit, immunized with ova albumin, was subjected to electrophoresis, it showed a peak for g globulin (Fig. 4.1). Studies have revealed that the major part of IgG is found in the g globulin fraction of the serum proteins. Other fractions, a and b, too, have other immunoglobulins along with small part of IgG.

Antibodies, also called immunoglobulins, are the proteins produced by the immune system against antigens. These are the protective proteins which interact with antigens and neutralize their effects. Antibodies are produced by B lymphocytes. An immunoglobulin has a Y-shaped structure consisting of four polypeptide chains.

Introduction

Development and standardisation of diagnostics for aquaculture health management have undergone great improvements over the last three decades. Diagnosis in aquaculture health management involves several stages starting from farm-level observations to conventional laboratory identification and histopathology to sophisticated modern molecular tools. Accordingly, diagnosis can be broadly categorised under three levels depending on the level of scientific development.

1. level-I detection system, farm site observation and record-keeping;

2. level-II system, conventional laboratory identification employing microbiology, parasitology, and histopathology and

3. level-III system, advanced and specialized immunological and biomolecular techniques.

The interaction of an antibody with an antigen forms the basis of all immunochemical techniques. Antibody binds specifically to an antigen at epitope or antigenic determinant level and this property has been used for development of immunodiagnosis. Furthermore, as antibodies react with antigen at ambient conditions and do not require sophisticated equipment ideal field test kits can be developed. Biomolecular tools using nucleic acid probes although very sensitive are costly and time-consuming requiring sophisticated equipment and trained personnel. Against this background, there is always a need for developing simple, low-cost, rapid yet sensitive farm- level diagnostics. Such field-level tests facilitate screening a large number of samples by a large number of poor and medium-sized farmers who constitute a majority in developing countries. Large-scale screening besides empowering farmers is considered to be ideal for effective health management. Antibody probes provide an ideal format for developing simple field-level diagnostics as antigens ideally react with antibodies at ambient conditions without requiring sophisticated equipment. Available technology for raising large quantities of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against pathogens has increased the scope for developing field detection kits in human, animal and agricultural health management. Several farmer-friendly detection systems also referred to as point-of-care (POC) detection method based on antibodies have been innovated in the recent past. POCT is defined as ‘medical diagnostic testing at the time and place of patient care.

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What is the percentage of different subclasses of IgG in the serum ?
Ans.     IgG1 : 65 ; IgG2 : 24 ; IgG3 : 7 ; IgG4 : 4

Q.2.     How many inter heavy chain bonds are there in different subclasses of IgG ?
Ans.     IgG1 : 2 ; IgG2 : 4 ; IgG3 : 13 : IgG4 : 2.

Q.3.     What is the half life of different subclasses of IgG ?
Ans.     IgG1, IgG2 and IgG4 : 23 days ; IgG3: 8 days.

ABSTRACT

Three medicinal plants namely, Eryngium foetidum (Apiaceae), Centella asiatic (Apiaceae) and Hemidesmus indicus (Asclepiadaceae) were collected from Similipa Biosphere Reserve forest and used in this investigation. Ethanolic, methanolic chloroform and aqueous extracts of different parts like leaf, root and stem were prepare through standard techniques and screened for their anticandidal potencies agains Candida albicans, C. tropicalis and C. krusei. Anticandidal activity of the extracts wer tested using preliminary and secondary screening methods, like disc diffusion metho (DDM) & agar-cup-plate-method (ACPM) and poisoned food technique (PFT respectively. On an average the inhibitory tendency of the extracts can be arranged as ethanolic extracts > methanolic extacts > chloroform extracts > aqueous extracts Maximum degree of inhibition was observed against C. krusei. Among the plant Hemidesmus indicus showed better anticandidal activities in comparison to other tw plants tested.

Foods are classified into three groups on the basis of ease of spoilage. Spoilage meant a condition produced by the excessive growth of microorganisms leading gradually to decay or decomposition. The stable or non perishable foods like sugar, flour, grains and dry products do not ordinarily spoil unless handled carelessly. The semi-perishable food like potatoes, onions, apples, waxed fruits, fruits and vegetables having thick skin can be protected from spoilage if properly handled and processed. The perishable foods, like livestock products, seafood, and poultry items, dairy products, and most fruit and vegetables spoil readily unless special preservatives methods are used. The spoilage of foods may be caused by molds, yeast, bacteria, enzymes, food constituents and insects. The use of food additives have become necessary to prevent spoilage other wise caused by the growth of bacteria, yeasts and molds.

Food spoilage usually refers to undesirable changes occurring in food due to the action of micro-organisms, insects and enzymes. The original nutritional value, texture, flavour of the food are damaged, the food become harmful to people and unsuitable to eat. Today however, preservation has used such factors as temperature, water activity, pH, gases, organic acids, salts, antibiotics, irradiation, packaging and various combinations of these factors. Foods vary greatly in the length of time for which they can be held in their natural form without spoilage. Preservatives retard product spoilage caused by mold, air, bacteria, fungi or yeast. Bacterial contamination can cause food-borne illness, including life-threatening botulism.

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What is the difference between cell wall of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria ?
Ans.     The cell wall of Gram positive bacteria is largely composed of peptidoglycans. These are chains of alternating N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid cross linked by short peptide side chains. On the other hand, the cell wall in Gram negative bacteria has thinner peptidoglycan layer, an outer membrane composed of a polysaccharide-lipid-protein structure. The oligosaccharide attached to a lipid (lipidA) and a series of repeating trisaccharides. The polysaccharide antigens are called ‘O’ antigens. The cell wall lipopolysaccharides of Gram negative bacteria are also called endotoxins.

Antigen-antibody interaction is very specific one in which an antibody recognizes an antigen through complementarities of shapes on paratope and epitope.  It is like lock and key, as occurs in case of enzyme-substrate reaction. It does not involve covalent linkage rather a spatial complementarity occurs between antigen and antibody. For example, when antibodies, raised against m-amino benzene sulphonate, are tested for their ability to bind with ortho-, meta- and para-isomers of the hapten, the antibodies show highest strength with meta than ortho- isomer.  Antibodies show poor reactivity with para isomer. This is because though chemically all these molecules are same but structurally they are different.

The interactions between antigens and antibodies are specific in nature in which an antibody recognizes an antigen through complementarities of shapes on paratope and epitope. An antigen reacts only with antibodies produced by itself or with closely related antigens. The reaction is similar to a lock and key. As a standard lock can be opened by its own key only similarly, an antibody can react only with its own antigen. Antibodies recognize molecular shapes (epitopes) on antigens.

The main purpose of the immune system is to protect the body from foreign substances, diseases or infections. When the body is exposed to a microbe or a foreign substance (antigen), the body makes some response which is called immune response. The purpose of immune response is to recognize, neutralize and eliminate the antigens from the body. Generally, the term immunogen is also used for antigen. Both, antigen and immunogen are used as synonyms but specifically, they are different from each other.

When the body is exposed to a microbe or a foreign substance, the body makes some response which is called immune response. Immune responses are initiated by the interaction between a ligand, present on the surface of the microbe or secreted by the microbe or a foreign substance, and a receptor protein on the cell’s surface or a soluble receptor. There are several factors such as shape, charge and presence of other receptors which influence this interaction between the ligand and receptor. This ligand which is recognized by the immune system is called antigen. An antigen can be defined as an organism, a molecule, or part of a molecule which is recognized by the immune system. Often, the term immunogen is also used for antigen. Though, antigen and immunogen are used as synonyms but specifically, they are different from each other.

1. Introduction

Nothing in the universe is non medicinal everything has its value in its own way. Infectious diseases are an important health hazard all over the world, both in developing and developed countries. Several synthetic antibiotics are employed in the treatment of infectious and communicable diseases. A number of researchers nowadays are working seriously to find out substitutes for antibiotics as they cause side effects on the functioning of different parts of the body organs and systems. Antibiotics are also known to disturb the natural intestinal micro flora, thus depriving the benefits of these microbes to human body. Medicinal plants exhibit antimicrobial activity since they contain innumerable biologically active chemical constituents. The medicinal plant wealth, the strong and time tested traditional medicare systems like ayurveda and the human resource base are the strengths of India. Over the last forty years intensive efforts have been made to discover clinically useful antibacterial/ antifungal drugs (Sashikumar et al., 2003). Over 50% of all modern clinical drugs are of natural product origin (Ates, 2003). Higher plants as sources of medicinal compounds have continued to play a dominant role in the maintenance of human health since ancient times (Farombi, 2003).

ABSTRACT

Indole alkaloids gramine, tyramine and tryptamine were isolated from the aerial part of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. for the first time and their antimicrobial properties agains microbial pathogens were studied. Structures of the compounds were elucidated base upon the spectroscopic data such as ¹H-NMR, ¹³C- NMR and MS. The evaluations o the crude extract and the alkaloids for their efficacy in inhibiting the growth of huma pathogenic bacteria and dermatophytes were carried out in vitro. The crude extrac was effective in inhibiting the growth of all the tested microorganisms. Tryptamin and tyramine did not inhibit microbial growth when tested individually, but in combination the growth inhibition of Klebsiella pneumoniae was prominent. Gramin was the most effective one in inhibiting the growth of all the tested microbial pathogens

Introduction

In the past few decades, the shrimp aquaculture industry has become an increasing disease challenge, impacting huge economic losses and sustainable development. Viruses, bacteria, and microsporidian parasites are major pathogens that threaten shrimp healthcare and currently, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) pathogens, and fungi have emerging diseases in the shrimp industry worldwide.

Naturally, invertebrate crustaceans, including shrimp, depend on nonspecific immune responses mainly involved by haemolymph and hemocytic cells. A cellular immune process involving phagocytosis, encapsulation, nodulation, and prophenol oxidase leads to melanin synthesis and humoral responses such as secretion of clotting protein, enzyme inhibitors, antioxidant enzymes and antimicrobial peptides for killing or resistance against invading pathogens. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are evolutionary conserved small peptide molecules ubiquitously found in all living organisms. AMPs are an integral part of the innate immune system in various organisms. These peptides have a broad spectrum of inhibitory effects against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Shrimp AMPs are short, molecular weight of less than 13 kDa, possess diverse structures, sizes, and biochemical features, and have an amphipathic structure with cationic or anionic properties that selectively target the negatively charged membranes of microbes.

ABSTRACT

In this study, different concentrations of acetone, alcohol, benzene and chloroform extract of Wedelia chinensis were carried out against human pathogenic bacterial and fungal strains. High frequency of anti-bacterial activity was observed on the Escherichia coli. Moderate amount of antibacterial activity was observed on Staphylococcus aureus. Highly resistant bacterium to this plant was screened through antibacterial pour plate method, which showed on the following organisms Citrobacter diversens, Serratia marcescens and Streptococcus pyogenes. The aim of this study is main evaluation of antimicrobial activity of plant. The ethanolic extracts demonstrating antibacterial and antifungal activity could result in the discovery of antibacterial and antifungal agents.

Introduction 
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the most significant global health challenges of the 21st century. Defined as the ability of microorganisms— including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites—to resist the effects of antimicrobial drugs, AMR undermines the progress of modern medicine. Antimicrobials—including antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitics—are the cornerstone of modern medicine. Their discovery transformed the treatment of infectious diseases and enabled surgical advances, chemotherapy, and organ transplantation. However, Alexander Fleming, the discoverer of penicillin, warned that misuse could render these drugs ineffective. Antibiotics, since their discovery in the 20th century, revolutionized healthcare, saving millions of lives and enabling complex medical procedures. Yet, the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in human health, veterinary practices, and agriculture have rapidly accelerated the emergence of resistant organisms. Today, this warning has materialized as a global crisis. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is now considered one of the top ten public health threats by the World Health Organization (WHO). It is not only a biomedical issue but also a socio-economic and developmental challenge. This chapter aims to provide an in-depth overview of AMR, focusing on definitions, history, mechanisms, causes, global status, impacts, and the urgency of mitigation efforts. It also explores national and global responses and future directions to curb the spread of AMR. AMR is estimated to cause 700,000 deaths annually worldwide, with projections of 10 million deaths annually by 2050 if urgent interventions are not implemented. In addition to health impacts, AMR poses grave threats to food security, sustainable agriculture, economic stability, and global development. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of AMR, including definitions and conceptual frameworks, historical background, mechanisms of

Fisheries sector plays an important role in food security and fish is now traded internationally. Shift in the trading policies (import and export) of seafood/aquatic products are happening at a rapid pace and consumption of seafood increased globally in substantial quantum. It is estimated that aquatic products export from Asian countries outcompetes earlier contributions to their importing partners year after year. Aquatic products include chordates, mollusc and arthropods from freshwater, brackish and marine system. They are nutrient rich diet and perishable too in nature and this prompted the industry to process the seafood in to different forms such as frozen, canned, cured and dried to extend its shelf life and recently value addition step being followed to improve the customer satisfaction. Nevertheless, the risk associated with the transboundary exchange of pathogens of seafood importance and its antibiotic resistance cannot be disregarded. Majority of the pathogens are not a native flora of fish. Each step in the aquatic products production chain either in the captured or cultured fisheries involves the contact of the seafood to the environment where they are grown, various implements used, contact surfaces, handlers, water etc. This post harvest handling makes the seafood contaminated with the pathogens of seafood importance such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp, Clostridium botulinum, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Shigella sp, Aeromonas hydrophila, Plesiomonas shigelloides and viral pathogens such as hepatitis A virus etc. Among these pathogens, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp, Staphylococcus aureus and Shigella spp are non-indigenous to the aquatic environment and others are indigenous to the aquatic environment. Depending on the nature of the environment (contaminated water source), feeding habits (filter feeders), season of harvest (summer season) are very crucial factors which cause seafood inherently contaminated in nature.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the top global public health threats. It is estimated that bacterial AMR was directly responsible for 1.27 million global deaths in 2019 and contributed to 4.95 million deaths (Murray et al., 2019).Despite its magnitude, public awareness of AMR remains low. Unlike tobacco smoke, antibiotics are potentially life-saving medications, but it is just as vital to understand the risks of overuse and their impact on future effectiveness in society as a whole (Langfordet al., 2019). Effective risk communication is essential to addressing AMR because it not only informs professional and community stakeholders but also nurturesbehaviour change across sectors. Within a One Health framework, risk communication connects human medicine, veterinary practice, agriculture, and environmental management, ensuring coordinated responses to reduce misuse and overuse of antimicrobials. This article explores the role of risk communication in combating AMR, highlighting global lessons, challenges, and strategies to strengthen communication systems for sustainable containment.
The Growing Threat of AMR
AMR occurs when microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve mechanisms to resist drugs that once effectively treated them. Misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in human health, livestock, aquaculture, and crop production accelerate resistance. According to WHO, AMR is projected to cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050 if left unaddressed (O’Neill, 2016). In countries like India, with high infectious disease burdens and large-scale antimicrobial consumption, the risks are particularly acute. Communicating these risks clearly and effectively is critical for influencing prescribing practices, agricultural use, and community awareness.Persistent misconceptions include beliefs that antibiotics are effective against viral illnesses and the mistaken notion that it is the human body, rather than bacteria, that develops resistance (Muflihet al., 2021). These knowledge gaps are often linked to insufficient or ineffective health communication (Krockowet al., 2023), sparse media coverage compared to threats like sepsis (Fitzpatrick et al., 2019).
Challenges in AMR Risk Communication
1. Low Public Awareness: Despite the global severity ofAMR, public awareness remains critically low. Surveys have found that a mere fraction of the population grasp its implications, with some reporting only ~8–11% demonstrating adequate understanding and many feeling powerless to contribute (Goshaet al., 2024).
2. Ineffective understanding of Terminology: It is recognized that AMR has a ‘language problem’ and the way in which healthcare professionals communicate about AMR may not always resonate with patients (Langford et al., 2019). Technical labels like “AMR” or “antimicrobial resistance” fall short in public communication. Experiments reveal that phrases such as “Antibiotic Resistance” or “Antibiotic Crisis” are more memorable and better at promoting critical behaviors—like completing prescribed antibiotic courses—than more formal terminology.
3. Misconceptions about Antibiotics: Widespread misunderstandings persist regarding antibiotics’ purpose and effect. Many incorrectly believe antibiotics treat viruses—common colds, flu, or even are effective painkillers (Gunasekara et al., 2022).Some think AMR occurs because the body becomes resistant, rather than bacteria evolving resistance(Muflihet al., 2021).
4. Complexity of the Issue: AMR is inherently multifaceted—spanning interactions among humans, animals, and the environment—which makes it challenging to distill into clear, actionable messages. Understanding Risk

Introduction
India has been making steady progress in the livestock sector with significant rise of meat, egg and milk production and a sustained annual growth rate of more than 5%. This growth trajectory is anticipated to accelerate further due to rising middle-class incomes combined with high income elasticity of demand for livestock products. However, despite having huge livestock resource, protein deficiency in rural India remains widespread. Recent data shows that two third of the Indian households are deficient in protein intake1. Looking at the growth potential in the sector, Govt. of India has put special focus on this sector and have undertaken many initiatives to boost animal health productivity and to increase farmer’s income. However, a major limiting factor in profitable livestock production in India is the high prevalence of infectious diseases. These livestock diseases cause great socioeconomic impact and are often exacerbated by inadequate biosecurity measures both in intensive and open production systems. Consequently, the use of antimicrobials for disease treatment has become an essential aspect of livestock management. Antibiotics usage in Animal Healthcare Antibiotics are an essential part of therapeutic management of infectious diseases in both farm and companion animals, ensuring better animal health and life; thereby also assures healthy food from the animal sources. In India a wide range of antibiotics are available in the veterinary practice viz. Penicillin, Semi-synthetic penicillin like Ampicillin, Amoxycillin, Aminoglycosides like Streptomycin, Gentamicin, Neomycin; Tetracycline, Kanamycin, Erythromycin; Fluoroquinolones like Enrofloxacin, Norfloxacin, Ciprofloxacin,

Introduction
Aquaculture is one of the sunrise sectors contributing a significant quantity to the global supply of fish for human consumption. Fish is a superior source of highquality animal protein and highly digestible energy. Disease problems in farmed fishes are one of the main barriers, resulting in significant financial losses up to a tune of US$2.48 B, 14.95% of the annual aquaculture production value in Indian aquaculture. In the aquatic environment, bacteria are quite prevalent and the majority of bacterial pathogens are found in the water’s natural flora. They only spread illness when poor husbandry practices, inadequate nutrition, and unfavourable environmental circumstances contribute to fish stress. Pathogenic bacteria, including Aeromonas spp, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus spp, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Clostridium botulinum, Plesiomonas shigelloides, and Listeria monocytogenes, can be either naturally present in fish or introduced to them during handling, processing, and storage. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Indian aquaculture presents a multifaceted and growing challenge at the intersection of public health, environmental sustainability, and food security. As aquaculture expands to meet rising global demands for protein, the sector has increasingly relied on antimicrobials to prevent and treat bacterial infections. However, due to some indiscriminate and unregulated use of these agents as well as the householdsewage, hospital effluents, contamination from agricultural wastes andinadequately treated urban waters that enter the aquaculture through drains and rivers,creates strong selective pressure and accelerate the development and dissemination of resistant pathogens in aquatic environments posing a serious threat not only to farmed fish but also to human health through environmental contamination and the broader food chain. Resistant bacteria and resistance genes can spread through water systems, biofilms, and aquaculture products, creating reservoirs that contribute to the broader One Health AMR crisis. Food borne pathogens (Aeromonas spp., Vibrio spp., and Streptococcus spp.) from aquatic animals were found resistant to antimicrobial agents that are relevant for therapeutic usage in human clinical settings. E. coliwas found to be resistant as a sign of possible human and terrestrial animal effects. Distinguishing resistance that has been selected in different sectors is extremely difficult and caution is needed while trying to attribute the source of antibiotic resistance in bacteria in the aquatic environment. Understanding the drivers, mechanisms, and impacts of AMR in aquaculture is essential for developing effective mitigation strategies and sustainable management practices that safeguard both aquatic and human health.