eBook Chapters

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is regarded as a silent pandemic that is responsible for causing the majorityof deaths every year and has become a major healthcare challenge and a significant public health issue. It has been reported that AMR alone has caused more fatalities than road accidents and cancer. It is among the top ten global health threats and has been recognized as a part of the multisector One Health approach. It has been predicted that by the year 2050, the burden of AMR will decrease the gross domestic product (GDP) by 2 to 3.5%, causing a loss of USD100 trillion to the world, with the annual death rate reaching 10 million. India faces one of the world’s highest antimicrobial resistance (AMR) rates, driven by high antibiotic consumption in humans, widespread non-prescription use, and unregulated application in livestock, aquaculture, and agriculture. Surveillance data show alarming resistance in major pathogens E. coli and Klebsiella,which now exhibit very low susceptibility to key antibiotics such as cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin, and carbapenems. Factors exacerbating the burden include inadequate infection prevention, limited laboratory capacity, poor enforcement of regulations, environmental contamination from pharmaceutical and hospital waste, and low public awareness. The combined impact threatens public health, food safety, and the economy. In general terms, AMR is defined as the ability of the microorganisms to withstand the action of an antimicrobial agent,i.e. Antibacterial agents, antifungal agents, potentially toxic metals, and disinfectants. AMR is known to be a natural process that occurs over time due to genetic changes in the pathogens under selective pressure, where a pathogen undergoes mutations and is often linked to indiscriminate use of antimicrobial agents.
Indefinite and improper use of antimicrobial agentshas been a major factor in the emergence of AMR. AMR affects both animals and humans alike, and resistant pathogens pose a challenge in treating infections. One of the crucial factors responsible for AMR is theenvironment, which is regarded as both a vehicle for spreading AMR microbes as well is a culprit of AMR pollutants, which severely impact the ecosystems. AMR is a multifaceted problem and to control it effectively, meticulous measures have been implemented for monitoring and surveillance of AMR in clinical settings, in both human and veterinary fields. However, the environmental surveillance dealing with the environmental AMR has yet to be established. The implementation of comprehensive monitoring of AMR in environment will vastly improve our understanding of the various dissemination routes and propagation of the resistant microbes in environment and their role in spreading AMR. In this chapter, we will discuss the environmental spread of AMR, drivers of AMR in the environment, factors influencing AMR, challenges faced, measures to tackle AMR, and future trends in curbing the burden of AMR.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global concern that poses a significant threat to contemporary healthcare systems, potentially hindering the management and treatment of various diseases. Microorganisms can act as reservoirs for AMR across various ecological niches; thus, a “one health” proposal is essential for coordinating a multisectoral strategy aimed at investigating and tackling this alarming issue. This method seems to be an effective strategy for addressing and alleviating the challenges posed by AMR; however, it demands the collaborative efforts and assets that are consistently and efficiently executed by health practitioners. Horses have been pivotal in human history; they have served in wars, provided transportation, and even aided in mining operations. In contemporary society, horses are significant as sport animals and in therapeutic settings involving animals. Given these close interactions between humans and equines, it becomes essential to effectively identify infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) impacting both species, particularly in instances of highly contagious diseases. Resistant bacteria represent a significant threat to the health of both equines and humans. Horses may obtain resistant bacteria through several avenues, such as interaction with other animals, exposure to contaminated materials, or to antibiotic uses. The responsible utilization of antibiotics and the implementation of antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential in reducing the transmission of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) within equine populations. A variety of zoonotic pathogens that exhibit resistance to antibiotics has been identified in equines. This includes Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamases (ESBL) which produces E. coli, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA), and Multidrug-Resistant (MDR) Salmonella. Horses can develop AMR through various channels like:

AMR has been prevalent in almost all European countries from past decades. A 2021-2022 report published by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) on AMR in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food origin reported vast differences in antimicrobials resistance levels among the European countries, with comparatively higher AMR percentages in the southern and eastern parts of Europe (ECDC, 2022, 2023). The resistance levels ranged from very high for tetracyclines, sulfonamides and ampicillin, moderate for ciprofloxacin to low levels for third-generation cephalosporins (cefotaxime and ceftazidime) in human cases infected with Salmonella spp. in 2022 (ECDC, 2023). The trends are dynamic and over a decade of 2013 2022, the human isolates from 12 and 15 countries reported a statistically significant reduction in tetracycline and ampicillin resistance, particularly for S. typhimurium (ECDC, 2023). The ciprofloxacin and cefotaxime combination, a highest priority critically important antimicrobials (CIA), had very low and rare resistance levels for Salmonella isolates of humans and animal and their derived meat.

Livestock species wise variation was also observed in the resistance pattern in imported meat, being higher in poultry meat isolates compared to pig or cattle meat for Escherichia coli (ECDC, 2023). High to extremely high levels of f luoroquinolone resistance from Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli of both human and animal origin isolates exist, due to which the fluoroquinolones can no more be used as a treatment option for human Campylobacter infections (ECDC 2023). The combined occurrence of erythromycin resistance and ciprofloxacin in Campylobacter spp is considered of high public health importance, and the report mentioned that the combined resistance for these antimicrobials was higher in C. coli compared to C. jejuni from food-producing animals and humans. However, while the ciprofloxacin resistance showed an increase in over 13 study countries, seven countries reported reduced erythromycin resistance for C. jejuni. Overall, resistance to conventional antimicrobials was frequent in Campylobacter and Salmonella from humans and animals. Increasing trend in resistance to one of two CIA for treatment in humans has been observed in poultry-originated Salmonella serovars and Campylobacter while combined resistance was is low in few Salmonella serovars and C. coli isolates from humans and animals in some countries (ECDC, 2023).

Introduction
 Antibiotic therapy is one of the mainapproaches of modern medicine used tofight bacterial diseases worldwide.Antibiotics comprise of any natural, synthetic, or semi-synthetic substances which interfereswith the growth and development of microbes or have killing effect onmicrobes, specifically bacteria. The availability of these antibiotics for treating various bacterial infectious diseases significantly improved the quality of life of humans as well as animals.The period from1930s to 1960s is considered as the ‘golden era’ of antibiotics during whichmost of the antibiotics available today werediscovered. Antibiotics, once known as the magic bullets of modern-day medicine, are now an “endangered species” facing the danger of extinction due to the worldwide emergence of antibiotic resistance (ABR)/antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among microbes. In general, AMR is the capacity of a microbes (bacteria, fungi, and viruses) to resist the growthinhibitory or killing activity of an antimicrobial beyond its normal susceptibility by altering their physiologyor genetic makeup. AMR has emerged as one of the most critical and complicated global public health threat due to its multi-faceted nature.World Health Organization (WHO) has declared AMR as one of the top 10 global public health threats. The emergence of AMR is closely related to the extensive use and misuse of existingantibiotics in the human and animal fields without properguidelines as well as failure to developor discover new antibiotics. AMR leads to a significant health burden worldwide as it is estimated that bacterial AMR alone attributesto 1.14 million deaths globally in the year 2021 and if left unchecked, it may contribute to 10 million deaths annually by 2050.This prediction was recently updated with the data from 2019 and reported that the deaths of 4.95 million people were related to drug-resistant bacterial infections and 1.27 million deaths were directly attributable to AMR.In addition to the health burden, AMR also increases the healthcare costs and imposes significant indirect economic burdens.Increasing reports of treatment failures in patients with infections caused by multi-, extensive-, and pan-drugresistant bacteriahave been documented in literature from different part of the world. Antibiotics once normally used to treat bacterial infections are no longer effective, and it becomes vital to use “reserve” or “last resort” antimicrobials that are often more expensive. Furthermore, WHO has also emphasized that AMR not only makes infections harder to treat but also jeopardizes ancillary medical procedures such as surgeries and cancer treatments. Food may act as a carrier for the transfer of antimicrobialresistant bacteria (AMRB) and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) to humans.Many scientific reports establish a link between the extensive use of antibiotics duringagricultural production and the increase in AMRamong human pathogens, in which food is one of thepossible transmission routes. Antibiotics are regularly added to feed as additives in intensive animal production systems at sub-therapeutic doses to stimulate growth, improve feed efficiency and avoid infections. The extensive use of antibiotics in human treatment, animal therapy and agricultural use as growth promoters are further causes of bacterial resistance to antibiotics. In recent years, the prevalence of AMR among microorganisms isolated from animal source foods (milk, meat, eggs etc) has increased. The increasing demand for quality animal protein has driven intensive farming, leading to increased antimicrobial usage. In the year 2020, global antimicrobial consumption in food-producing animals was estimated around 99,502 tonnes.Antibiotics are commonly used prophylactically infoodproducing animals and it is projected that by 2030 such usewill increase by approximately 67% globally.Despite efforts to reduce antibiotic use, many countries still rely heavily on antimicrobials for growth promotion and disease prevention. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has emphasized the need for better monitoring of antimicrobial use in animals. The emergence and spread of AMR in the food chain is considered as a multisectoral issue, because (i) antibiotics are widely used in livestock production systems (cattle, poultry etc), (ii) AMRB and ARGs can easily spread at each stage of the food production chain, and (iii) these AMRB can cause infections in humans.Thus, the emergence of AMR along the food chain is a major

Use of Antimicrobial Agents

The most frequently used classes of antimicrobial drugs in animals include tetracyclines, sulfonamides alone or in combination with potentiators, quinolones particularly fluoroquinolones, aminopenicillins alone as well as in combination with potentiators, first- and second-generation cephalosporins and also third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins, macrolides, and glycopeptides [1]. The “Terrestrial Animal Code”, issued by the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) in 2022 represents recent guidance for the responsible and prudent use of antimicrobials in veterinary medicine [2]. It describes the respective responsibilities of the competent authority and stakeholders in all processes pertaining to veterinary antimicrobial agents ranging from authorization to the administration to the animals.

ABSTRACT

Serious infections caused by bacteria that have become resistant to commonly used antibiotics have become a major global healthcare problem in the 21^st century. Antibiotic resistance, initially a problem of the hospital setting associated with an increased number of hospitals acquired infections usually in critically ill and immuno-suppressed patients, has now extended into the community causing severe infections difficult to diagnose and treat. In hospitals, most common resistant bacteria include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant enterococci and gram-negative rods including Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Vancomycin intermediate and resistant S. aureus, represent a new treatment challenge. In the community, penicillin and macrolide-resistant pneumococci developed several decades ago and are now present all over the world. More recently, communityacquired methicillin-resistant S. aureus has become a problem in several countries causing skin infections but also severe diseases. The molecular mechanisms by which bacteria have become resistant to antibiotics are diverse and complex. Bacteria have developed resistance to all different classes of antibiotics discovered to date. The most frequent type of resistance is acquired and transmitted horizontally via the conjugation of a plasmid. In recent times new mechanisms of resistance have resulted in the simultaneous development of resistance to several antibiotic classes creating very dangerous multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial strains, some also known as ‘‘superbugs’’. In many cases the use of antibiotics is unnecessary or questionable. The indiscriminate and inappropriate use of antibiotics in outpatient clinics, hospitalized patients and in the food industry is the single largest factor leading to

AMR is undoubtedly the most serious challenge ever faced by the world health community because of its multifaceted complex nature and its overwhelming impact over the human and veterinary communities. Livestock sector is no exception to have the serious and devastating impact from the emergence and spread of AMR. Because of a steady shift towards intensive farming and increased stocking density there has been increase occurrence of infectious diseases. Growing world population, rapid urbanization, and deforestation, shrinkage of grazing land all aided to this process. This leads to increased usage of antimicrobials in food animals – cause of concern for the scientific community as AMU is known the single most important driver of AMR.

Introduction

Antimicrobials, viz. antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and anthelmintics are substances widely used to prevent and treat infections in humans, fish & prawn, livestock animals, and crops. In a situation where microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi become resistant to antimicrobial treatments to which they were previously susceptible, it is apprehended that antimicrobial resistance in the microbes has evolved. In fact, antibiotic resistant bacteria evade the effects of antibiotics and multiply in their own way leading to severe health consequences in human and animals. The menace is such that antimicrobial resistance (AMR) hinders treatment modalities targeted for infectious diseases. The hazards of antimicrobial resistance is frequently observed in various pathogenic and non-pathogenic organisms, viz. Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Yersinia sp., E. coli serotype O157:H7, enterococci, Pasteurella sp., Actinobacillus sp. with varying severity (McEwen and Fedorka-Cray, 2002). Microorganisms that develop resistance to commonly used antimicrobials are referred to as superbugs. Globally it is a matter of great concern that it spreads rapidly and threatening the ability to treat common infectious diseases, resulting in prolonged illness, disability and death. Without any effective antimicrobial agent, treatment of infectious diseases, many medical procedures like cancer therapy, diabetes management, organ transplantation, and major surgery will not be possible. The microbes showing resistance to multiple antimicrobials are commonly known as multidrug resistance (MDR) organisms (Magiorakos et al., 2012).

Antimicrobial Resistance abbreviated as AMR is defined as the process by which microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites change over a period and become resistant to a drug to which they were earlier susceptible to. This makes the medicines ineffective for treatment overtime, thus making infections difficult to treat thereby increasing the risk of spread of diseases caused by them and severe illness which may lead to death. This in turn necessitates the need for development of newer antibiotics. However, there has been a sharp decline in the development and manufacture of new antibiotics in the recent years resulting in development of only few antibiotics in the past two decades. The increase in emergence of antibiotic resistance concurrent with decline in development of newer antibiotics poses a serious threat to health of both humans and animals. Every year about 700,000 deaths have been reported to occur due to resistant infections and this rate is likely to increase further with estimated infections due to resistant pathogens expected to reach over 50 million globally by 2050 (O’Neill, 2016). The worrisome trends of increasing antimicrobial resistance across the globe poses a serious threat to both animal and human health as AMR not only increases the morbidity and mortality rates but also increases the economic burden on health care (Zhu et al., 2022). This presents an extremely grave situation as the supply of new antibiotics is inadequate to cope with the increase of AMR pathogens. The unnecessary use of antibiotics globally especially in the livestock sector as growth promoter further helps in selective enrichment of AMR pathogens which further increases health risks. It is well known that resistant pathogenic and commensal bacteria can persist and spread within and between premises despite zero antimicrobial drug use. This may be explained due to maintenance, replication, and further dissemination of resistance genes by horizontal transfer of genes via natural ecosystem and can occur either by conjugation, transformation and transduction; and these mechanisms can rapidly spread AMR genes among microbial community in natural environment and human microbiome, where these resistant bacterial species may be selected due to presence of antimicrobial drugs (Zhu et al., 2022). The physical transfer of bacteria via movement of animals, workers, and equipment and ineffective cleaning and disinfection may also be responsible for increasing the AMR pathogens in the natural environments.

Introduction

Discovery of the antimicrobial agents in the early twentieth century was a breakthrough to safeguard the public health from the microbial infection. Propensity of these compounds to kill pathogens influenced the discovery of novel antimicrobials. However, since the 1970s, soon after the discovery of the fluoroquinolones, no major antibiotics have been introduced. The prevalent issue is largely attributed to the repercussions of antibiotic overuse or irresponsible utilization across diverse contexts, predominantly in clinical treatment, agricultural practices, animal healthcare, war crisis and the food system. Moreover, the accessibility and availability of antibiotics results in antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Nonprudent use of antibiotics accompanied by genetic plasticity allows microorganisms to adapt to the effect of antimicrobials causing a rapid surge of antimicrobial resistance. Extensive use of antimicrobials in animal husbandry is a major driver of AMR selection and the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARBs) (World Health Organization, 2014).

Introduction to Antibiotic Discovery

Antibiotics are the drugs that are used to treat illnesses caused by bacteria in humans and animals. These act by killing or inhibiting the growth and multiplication of bacteria. Antibiotics were considered as “magic bullets” that selectively kills microbes responsible for disease causation, but at the same time would not affect the host (Zaman et al., 2017).

Louis Pasteur in 1877, first discovered the properties of antibacterial compounds with the inhibition of anthrax by saprophytic bacteria. In 1928, Alexander Fleming observed that the growth of Staphylococcus aureus in petri dishes was inhibited by substances produced by the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum, which led to the discovery of the first antibiotic, penicillin (Aminov, 2017). Selman Waksman, discovered multiple antibiotics from filamentous actinomycetes living in the soil and defined an antibiotic as “a compound made by a microbe to destroy other microbes”. Following the discovery of Penicillin, various antimicrobial compounds such as sulphonamides, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, lipopeptides, oxazolidinones, glycopeptides, streptogramins, and quinolones were discovered in the “Golden era” of antibiotics during the period from the 1940s to the 1960s and most of the antibiotics still in current use were discovered during that period (Salam et al., 2023). Millions of metric tons of newer classes of antibiotics have been produced in last 60 years since its inception.

Normally raw milk contains different levels of inhibitory substances, which restrict the normal development of bacteria and some times may even kill them. The degree of inhibitory activity varies considerably in milks of different species, viz, cow, buffalo, human. Maximum activity present in human milk, variations occur in the milks of individual animals and some times even at different milking or from different quarters of the udder of the same animal.
There are two groups of antimicrobial substances present in milk:
    1.    Inherent or naturally occurring substances in milk. 
    2.    Non- inherent compounds secreted into milk from other sources.

Antinutrients

Safety is the most important aspect among all the quality attributes of food. Food can be considered safe, only if it does not contain any factor which is hazardous to human or even animal health. The various factors which affect the safety of the foods may be broadly classified into three categories. The first category includes the toxic factors occurring naturally in foods. The second category comprises a group of incidental contaminants which find their way at various stages of processing, manufacture, preservation and storage of foods and the third category includes harmful intentional additives or adulterants.

Various categories of anti-nutritional factors are present in the traditional and non-traditional oilseeds, oils and oilcakes. Some of them are heat-labile and do not pose any harmful effects in the body, while the heat-stable factors may cause deleterious effects in human beings and animals. They belong to different groups of compounds. It is necessary to know their behaviour, significance and toxicities. Their avoidance or elimination is important to protect human and animal health.

ABSTRACT

Free radical scavenging property and antimicrobial activity of Triphala, the herbal product made of equal proportion of Terminalia chebula, Terminalia bellerica and Emblica officinalis were evaluated. Ethanol extracts of the formulation were tested for its invitro antioxidant activity by using improved ABTS radical cation decolorizing assay and invitro antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus mutans (predominantly involved in bio-film formation) by both well-diffusion and turbidity method to determine its minimal inhibitory concentration. An effort was also made to correlate its antiplaque activity using an invitro assay (where conditions kept similar to oral cavity) with Triphala and two commercial toothpastes (Colgate and Pepsodent). The ethanol extract showed significant antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. Triphala showed effective antiplaque activity when compared with the other tooth pastes. The herbal extract effectively inhibited the bio-film formation and more antioxidant activity exhibited by the extract might protect the gum cells effectively from free radicals than the commercial toothpastes, having less antioxidant activity.

Introduction

Vegetables are essentially important functional foods capable of providing additional physiological benefits such as delaying onset of chronic diseases apart from meeting basic nutritional requirements. Vegetables constitute a significant source of carotenoids, phenolics, vitamin C, flavonoids and glucosinolates which boost the immune mechanism and have medicinal properties. The antioxidants in tomato, onions, carrots, garlic, brussel sprouts, peppers and green leafy vegetables and their potential health benefits are critically discussed.

Oxidative damage to biological molecules like DNA, protein and lipids induced by free radicals is considered to be linked with many degenerative diseases such as cardiovascular, cancer, ocular and neurological such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Antioxidants from plant sources preserve an adequate function of immune cells against homeostatic disturbances and act as functional foods. Functional foods are foods which besides fulfilling the basic physiological function, have health promoting effect. There is a considerable epidemiological evidence indicating association between diets rich in vegetables and a decreased risk of cardiovascular disease and certain forms of cancer. Diets rich in fruits and vegetables contain high amounts of antioxidant compounds like vitamin C, vitamin E, carotenoids, flavonoids, tannins and other phenolic constituents which boost the immune mechanism.

Abstract

The cereal grains are grown around the world, the most common is wheat, which accounts for one third of the total grain crop worldwide. In addition to providing energy, whole grains contain several key nutrients, including fibers, lipids, B vitamins and minerals as well as other beneficial components such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, lignans and phytosterols. Several of these components function as antioxidants. While multiple studies have been conducted to analyze antioxidants in different grains. In wheat and other grains, naturally occurring phytonutrients with antioxidant activity include phenolic acids, flavonoids, coumarins, polyphenols, phytates, terpenes, carotenoids, tocopherols and tocotrienols. Potential roles of the naturally occurring antioxidants in grains include free radical scavenger, reducing agent, complexation of prooxidant metals, quenchers of singlet-oxygen molecules and antioxidant defense enzyme system activators for biological systems. Wheat grain contains several components that have potential antioxidant activity and thus may have a protective role in human health. Traditional wheat-based breakfast foods include hot and cold ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals, as well as a variety of yeast-leavened and chemically leavened bakery products. Increasing baking time and temperature increases antioxidant activity in the bread crust and lowers antioxidant activity in the bread crumb portion. Wheat and wheat based products, particularly partial and 100% whole grain products have been shown to provide a variety of beneficial components including fiber, vitamins, minerals and other phytonutrients with antioxidant activity. Scientific evidence indicates that consumption of three or more ounce equivalents of whole grain foods per day may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes and certain cancers and help with weight management.

The importance of air in human life is well known as air is required for running different biological processes in human body. Unfortunately, the same life giving air or oxygen can cause harmful side effects like generation of oxidants or free radicals in our body. Reactive oxygen species, by product of respirative cycle of oxidative phosphorylation, are well known to interfere with cytoplasmic function and bio-molecules and for inflicting damages on cellular bio-molecules, which pre-disposes cells to several anomalies like mutagenic aberration, cell ageing, diseases, cancerous tumour growth and development of various lethal diseases such as cardio-vascular diseases, cancer, atherosclerosis etc. (Gorinstein and others 2001; Apak and others 2004). Free radicals disrupt the proper membrane function, denature proteins and inhibit enzyme function. Antioxidants, naturally present in food, play a vital role in trapping the radicals and; therefore, effective in reducing the risk of heart diseases, immune system decline, different inflammatory reactions etc. (Silici and others 2010).

Free radicals are unstable because they are missing an electron and they try to become stable by attaching to cell membranes in the body, snatching away electrons from them. This, in turn, sets free radicle molecules on an electron snatching spree and starts a chain reaction that ultimately leads to cell death. On the other hand, antioxidants (such as carotenoids, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, flavonols, flavonoids, polyphenols etc.), present in our foods can prevent or slow down the oxidative damage by donating one of their own electrons, ending the electron-stealing reaction. Epidemiological evidences suggests that intake of antioxidants helps in scavenging free radicals, cause of a broad spectrum damages to biological system (Vertuani and others 2002). This has led consumers to look for a diet, derived from natural sources as well as rich in antioxidants as an strategy to counteract the cellular damages wreak by oxidative stress.

1. Introduction
Aquaculture has emerged as a vital sector in global food production, with the increasing demand for fish and seafood as a primary source of protein for a rapidly growing population. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquaculture contributes significantly to global fisheries production, accounting for nearly 50% of the total fish consumed worldwide. This remarkable growth trajectory is driven by the need to meet food security challenges while providing sustainable and nutritious food sources. Despite its importance, intensive aquaculture practices present numerous challenges that can adversely affect fish health and productivity. Fish raised in aquaculture systems are often subjected to a variety of environmental stressors, including poor water quality, high stocking densities, rapid growth rates, and fluctuations in temperature. These stressors lead to increased metabolic activity in fish, which can elevate the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) — highly reactive molecules that can cause cellular damage. Under normal physiological conditions, the production of ROS is counterbalanced by the antioxidant defense mechanisms in fish. However, when the production of ROS exceeds the capacity of these defense systems, oxidative stress ensues.
Oxidative stress is a detrimental condition characterized by an imbalance between ROS generation and the antioxidant capacity of an organism. In fish, this condition can manifest in various forms, including cellular damage, lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, and DNA damage. The consequences of oxidative stress are severe, resulting in impaired growth, compromised immune responses, increased susceptibility to diseases, and ultimately higher mortality rates. Understanding the underlying mechanisms of oxidative stress in aquaculture is critical for developing effective strategies to mitigate its impact and improve fish welfare.

Abstract

Dietary antioxidants can be found naturally in various fruits, vegetables and food products.Typically, antioxidant phytochemicals commonly found in food products are Vitamin C, Vitamin E, carotenoids, polyphenols, melanoidins and indoles. The main characteristic of an antioxidant is its ability to scavenge free radicals and form stable end product which inhibit the chain oxidative mechanisms that lead to degenerative diseases which are harmful to human health. Drying is widely used in food processing to minimize food wastage and to extend food shelf-life. Pretreatment, drying methods and storage conditions are some of the processing parameters affecting the quality of dried products. Selection of processing conditions and storage environment are therefore critical in maximizing the retention of food antioxidants. This chapter aims to compile and summarize studies carried out for antioxidants namely antioxidant contents in dried food products, effect of processing parameters and quantification methods in the analyses of antioxidants.

Antirrhinum is a genus commonly known as snapdragon belongs to family Scrophulariaceae. Snapdragon is one of the flowering plant present with vast genetic diversity in India. The term Antirrhinum is derived from the Greek word “anti” means like and “rhin” means a nose, referring to the snout like shape of the flower. The cultivated Antirrhinum majus is grown in tropical, subtropical and temperate countries. The common name snapdragon, originates from the flowers reaction to having their throats squeezed, which causes the mouth of the flower to snap open like a dragon’s mouth. Flowers are borne on terminal long spikes of many colours except blue and with numerous shades. It is one of the excellent cut flowers which have long lasting qualities. These are also used as garden plants, bedding plants, in rockeries or herbaceous borders and as potted plants. Plants can be grown for cut flowers in an open field or under protection depending on the climate. The leaves and flowers are antiphlogistic, bitter, resolvent and stimulant (Chiej, 1984).

Antirrhinum is a genus commonly known as snapdragon belongs to family Scrophulariaceae. Snapdragon is one of the flowering plant present with vast genetic diversity in India. The term Antirrhinum is derived from the Greek word “anti” means like and “rhin” means a nose, referring to the snout like shape of the flower. The cultivated Antirrhinum majus is grown in tropical, subtropical and temperate countries. The common name snapdragon, originates from the flowers reaction to having their throats squeezed, which causes the mouth of the flower to snap open like a dragon’s mouth. Flowers are borne on terminal long spikes of many colours except blue and with numerous shades. It is one of the excellent cut flowers which have long lasting qualities. These are also used as garden plants, bedding plants, in rockeries or herbaceous borders and as potted plants. Plants can be grown for cut flowers in an open field or under protection depending on the climate. The leaves and flowers are antiphlogistic, bitter, resolvent and stimulant (Chiej, 1984).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The garden snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus) has emerged as a model organism during early studies of inheritance and mutation (Darwin, 1868) because of its diploid inheritance, ease of cultivation and variation in morphology and flower colour. The genus Antirrhinum includes 15 New World species in the section Saerorhinum and 21 Old World species in the sections Antirrhinum and Orontium. A. majus (Snapdragon) is a species of Antirrhinum native to the Mediterranean region, from Morocco and Portugal north to southern France and East to Turkey and Syria. Most species are found around the Mediterranean Sea and in North America (Stubbe, 1966). The progenitor of the modern snapdragon is from the Mediterranean region and more specifically, it is native to southern France. It was believed that the snapdragon reached Britain with the Romans at an early date, where it has been naturalized on mountainous regions. Thereafter, it spread to different parts of the world from Britain.

The scientific name of the genus Antirrhinum was first defined by Carl von Linne in the year 1753. In the year 1914 Professor Erwin Baur the founder of the MaxPalnck-Institut für Züchtungsforschung in Cologne published a volume called ‘Einführung in die experimentelle Vererbungslehre’ (Introduction to Experimental Genetics) 2nd edition. This book contained several plates with reproductions of water colour paintings of snapdragons as examples. He crossed a white line with a red line resulting in a pink flower. This pink flower then was selfed and the offspring showed the typical distribution of 1 white, 2 pink and 1 red as a demonstration of Mendelian inheritance. Antirrhinum glandulous is native of California. In United States of America, winter flowering cultivars were introduced in 1926 by Frank Volz of Cheviot, Ohio. In 1959, snapdragon were included in the Agricultural Censuses of Horticulturally Special Crops and ranked seventh as a cut flower crop.

The genus Antirrhinum offers an inexhaustible resource for genetics-based studies in developmental biology, biochemistry and evolution (Stubbe, 1966). Wide diversity of Antirrhinum species, combined with classical and molecular genetics, the two traditional strengths of Antirrhinum provides an opportunity for developmental, evolutionary and ecological approaches (Schwarz-Sommer et al., 2003). Transposons responsible for flower variegation were identified in the 1980s. The Max-Planck-Institute in Cologne, Germany, allowing genes involved in flower and leaf development and in pigmentation to be isolated by transposon tagging. Population genetic studies that have been applied to Antirrhinum species show different population sizes, geographic distributions and breeding systems, from self-fertility to obligate out-crossing (Jimenez et al., 2002 and Mateu-Andres and de Paco, 2006). It was introduced to India with the advent of British. Among them, only A. majus has been domesticated as an ornamental.

Introduction
Using short, single-stranded oligonucleotide strands complementary to the targeted mRNA, as RNA technology can regulate gene expression, leading to changes in phenotype, disease resistance, and other traits associated with protein expression profiles. Since gene function depends on expression, this technology can be used to silence genes and inhibit their expression. Because it can manipulate and regulate protein expression during its translation, it can knock out or down the expression of a gene of interest. As such, functional genomics can benefit from this technology as it allows for the regulation of protein expression.
Gene expression involves two main steps: transcription, in which the DNA sequence serves as a template to create an mRNA molecule, and translation, in which the mRNA is used as a template to synthesize a protein. The genes in DNA provide the instructions for making proteins, which are essential for the functions of the cell.
Polymer chain that transforms into an effective protein. The triplet code, which forms the basis of the genetic code, designates an amino acid for each codon made up of three nucleotides. Several enzymes, including together, enzymes such as polymerase, exonuclease, ligase, etc., unravel the DNA double helix and match RNA base pairs with DNA bases to create an RNA copy of the original DNA.

Introduction

Casein has been widely used as a substrate for measuring the trypsin inhibitor activity of natural trypsin inhibitors such as those which occur in Soybeans and other legume. The most common method employing casein is the one originally described by Kunitz (1947) which involves the spectrophotometric determination of the breakdown products produced by a given concentration of trypsin in the presence and absence of the inhibitor. On the other hand, the tryptic hydrolysis of a synthetic substrate such as benzoyl-DL-arginine-p-nitroanilide (BAPA), first introduced by Erlanger et al. (1961), does follow a zero order reaction, and one obtains, within broad limits, a linear relationship between the quantity of p-nitroaniline released and the concentration of the active enzyme. Although BAPA has been used for assaying the antitryptic activity of soybean fractions (Sambeth et al., 1967).

Antiviral Factor (AVF)

When an incompatible virus enters the host, resistance to viral diseases is seen. A number of substances, including polyacrylic acid, aspirin, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, and other growth regulators, including Indole acetic acid (IAA), 2, 4-D, Benzyl amino-in (3P), and ethylene, cause resistance to viral diseases. For each of these situations, certain plant compounds have also been identified to cause the development of novel proteins in plant tissues. They are referred to as “antiviral factors.” Healthy plants lack these antiviral components. They are only created once the host has been infected by the virus. These post-infectional substances resemble “phytoalexins.”

Indian gooseberry or aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.), is an important fruit crop of 21st century and it has been regarded as ‘Amritphal’ in ancient literature, and has been identified as an ideal plant for various kinds of wastelands viz, moisture stress, eroded, ravines, upland, riverbed and the areas with undulated topography (Korwar et al., 2006) as it possesses some specific characters like intensive and deeper root system, summer dormancy of zygote, reduced leaf area, synchronization of fruit growth and development with moisture availability period and selective absorption of cations and anions which enable it to grow in fragile agro-climatic conditions. India is principal aonla growing country and Uttar Pradesh is the leading state and Pratap garh district, U.P. is well known for aonla cultivation throughout the country. Aonla is a deciduous tree, small to medium in size and distributed in tropical and sub-tropical forests in India. Looking to its high demand and value added products, now, it is being commercially cultivated in different parts of country. It can tolerate alkalinity and salinity and can be grown in wide range of soils.

Aonla is said to be indigenous to tropical south-eastern Asia, particularly in central and southern India (Firminger, 1947). The genus comprises of about 350 species. It is also called Indian gooseberry, amla, nelli, myrobalan, amlaki, amali, ambala, amlika, sirikai, amalakamu in different regional languages in India. Aonla is one of the richest sources of natural ascorbic acid which is protected by high polyphenols content during storage and processing. Aonla is indigenous to central and southern India. It is found it Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China and Malacca. In India, it is widely cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu. Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Chhatisgarh and Jharkhand.

Cultivars/Varieties: Some of the well-known improved varieties are Banarasi, Chakaiya, Krishna (NA-5), Kanchan (NA-4), Hathi Jhul, Neelam (NA-7), Amrit (NA-6), Balwant, Anand-1, 2 & 3.

Uses

The fruit is widely used in ayurvedic preparation due to its pharmacological properties. The fruits are made into preserve (murabba), sauce, candy, dried chips, etc., Fruits are pickled and made into, jelly, toffee, etc., bark and leaves are used for tanning and wood is used for preparing hookah.

Aonla or Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) is one of the most important traditional but underutilized fruits of Indian origin, having immense potentiality of cultivation on marginal and waste lands. It belongs to  family Euphorbiaceae and sub-family Phyllanthoidae. Aonla tree thrives well throughout the tropical and sub-tropical parts of India either found growing wild or cultivated. Aonla is a quite hardy, prolific bearer and highly remunerative even without much care. It can be grown easily on calcareous and slightly saline as well as alkaline soils where common fruit crops do not thrive.
 
Aonla is regarded as sacred by Hindus and has great mythological significance. According to Hindu mythology, one day meal is arranged beneath an aonla tree during Kartik (October) when trees are laden with fruits. Hindu religion also prescribes that ripe fruits of aonla be eaten for forty days after fast  to restore health and vitality known as Kaya Kalp (Benthal, 1946).

ABSTRACT

A long term study was conducted to evaluate different aonla based silvipastoral systems for compatibility, productivity and conservation effects. Three grass species viz. dholu, hybrid napier and perennial arhar were evaluated for 14 years for degraded lands of Shivaliks. Hybrid napier because of its vigour growth adversely affected the growth of aonla but effect on yield turned non-significant. Arhar could survive only during pre-bearing state. Studies on soil losses and runoff for decades showed that Embilica officinalis + Chrysopogon fulvus was the best silvipastoral system for soil conservation. This system saved rainwater and soil in a range of 4.88 to 30.66 cm and 862-2818 kg ha^-1 respectively over sole plantation. The combination of Embilica officinalis + Chrysopogon fulvus proved to be the most effective silvipastoral system for reclamation of degraded lands and improving economic status of people in Shivalik foot hills.

Aonla or Indian Gooseberry (Emhlica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus embfica L.). belonging to family Euphorbiaceae. is an indigenous fruittree to Indian sub continent. It is one of the most important commercial crops suitable for marginal soils and various kinds of waste lands particularly salt affected lands. A lot of genetic variability is available in India with respect to growth and fruit quality characteristics of aonla. Almost all the budded varieties of aonla were selected from naturally occurring superior chance seedlings having in view their earliness, lateness, hardiness to adverse conditions, yield and superior fruit quality.

1-or successful aonla orchards, it is utmost necessary to have basic knowledge of various cultivars suitable for a particular set of environmental and soil conditions.

This crop is gaining importance as a main ingredient in Indian diet due to its medicinal properties. Large areas are under its cultivation and the larger fruited varieties have become very popular. It is one of the prime constituents in ayurvedic preparations
Bark-eating caterpillars - Indarbela quadrinotata, I. tertraonis: Metarbelidae
The larvae of this species make zigzag galleries and feed on the bark under silken ribbon- shaped webs. They are stout and dirty brown in colour.
Fruit- borer : Deudorix Isocrates : Lycaenidae: The larvae of this beautiful butterfly cause considerable damage (up to 42%) to fruits.  They start feeding while the fruit is tender, and growing. During severe infestations, chemical control may be warranted. This can be done by spraying contact insecticides like malathion, or dichlorvos or  fenvalerate or other synthetic pyrethroids.

Aonla, indigenous to Indian subcontinent popularly known as Indian gooseberry (Amla), is a fruit with immense nutritional and medicinal value. In fact, aonla, in its processed form is very popular among the social elites. Its fruit is valued very high amongst the indigenous medicinal fruits and has even been recommended by the ancient Ayurvedic system for sound health. Aonla is the second largest source of Vitamin C (600 mg/100 gm) among all the fruits, after Barbados cherry and this is 10 times the amount of Vitamin C present in orange. Vitamin C plays a major role in the health of the teeth and gums. In addition to this, it increases the resistance against pathogenic attacks. Aonla is also rich in fibers (3.4%) that are important for the smooth flow of ingested food in our alimentary canal. It also contains carbohydrates (14%) and vitamin B1 (30 mg/100g of fruit weight). Minerals like iron, calcium and magnesium, which are crucial for the various metabolic reactions in a human body, are also present in ample quantities in aonla. 

Genus : Phyllanthus
Species : emblica L.
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 28

The aonla (Emblica officinalis syn. Phyllanthus emblica) is native of tropical south-eastern Asia, and to central and southern India in particular. Aonla although considered as a minor fruit, but is of commercial significance primarily due to early high returns without much care. The small lateral branches resembles pinnate leaves of walnut or sumac and when fall off leaves behind a big scar. Flowers are axillary, apetalous mono or dioecious in small clusters or singly. Plants show great adaptability, are hardy and high bearer. The genus Phyllanthus (Greek-for leaf flower) has some 500 species or even more and two have been identified as important from fruit point of view i.e. P. emblica and P. acidus.

Origin and history  : Aonla or Indian gooseberry is also known as Indian amla. Aonla is the tropical South eastern Asia particularly central and southern India. It is commercially grown in Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. In Uttar Pradesh aonla cultivation is more popular in Pratapgarh, Mirzapur and Barely. It is very rich from nutritional point of view being next to Barbados cherry in terms of vitamin C content (500-750 mg/100g pulp)which is not oxidized due to presence of tannins and even it is least destroyed during storage. Besides, it has an excellent medicinal value. It can be grown successfully in arid climate and in the soils of higher pH and poor fertility wastelands.

Aonla or Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis Gaertn), belongs to family Euphorbiaceae, is indigenous to Indian subcontinents (Morton, 1960). It has become an important commercial fruit crop in India, due to its hardy nature, suitability to various waste lands, high productivity, nutritive and therapeutic values (Singh et al., 2003). In its processed form, is very popular among the social elites (Singh, 2012). As an indigenous fruit, it has extensive adaptability to grow in diverse climatic and soil conditions ranging from plain lands to hills. The climate ranging from hot tropical plains to humid subtropical mid-elevation hills has been found suitable for its cultivation. It is successfully raised in arid, semi-arid, coastal and warm temperate conditions. Similarly it grows well in saline, alkaline and degraded as well as in sandy, red and clay soils (Singh, 2012).

It is not merely a source of nutrients and medicines but its cultivation is also highly remunerative for small and marginal farmers. Traditionally, aonla has been a common crop of forest or household, but during the last decade or two, unprecedented expansion has been witnessed in the sphere of aonla cultivation across the country, utilizing the wasteland. Many small and big orchards have been established. This has resulted in efficient utilization or resources culminating in increase in farmers’ income and nutritional security coupled with enhanced employment and better utilization of wastelands.

Medicinal plants especially underutilized fruit are the nature’s gift to arid zone. Many of fruits are popular in this area but aonla posses an important place among all. Aonla or Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis Gaertn) is native to tropical south-eastern Asia mainly peninsular of central and southern India. The tree is known as Amla, Amlaki, Amli, Ambala, Amalakamu and Nelli in different parts of India. It is a very hardy tree and can be grown under diverse soil and agro-climatic conditions without much care. Aonla fruits has been reported to have potential of antioxidant, free radical scavenging capacity, anti-inflammatory, anti-mutagenic, immune modulation properties, which is used to cure various cancer, diabetes, liver and heart related diseases

Aonla has been regarded as a sacred tree in India. It has religious value and it is medicinally very important since ancient time. It has hallowed position in Indian medicine system called as Ayurveda as a protective remedy for several mankind problems. The tree was worshipped as Mother Earth and is believed to nurture humankind because the fruit are very nourishing. Kartik Mahatma and Vrat Kaumudi order the worship of this tree. The leaves are offered to the Lord of Shri Satyanarayana Vrata, Samba on Shri Shanipradosha Vrata and Shiva and Gowri on Nitya Somvara Vrata. The fruit and flowers are also used in worship. Fruits of aonla are processed in various forms like Juice, Murabba, Chayvanprash, candy, powder and flakes which has significant role in mitigating several malnourished disorders. Aonla cultivation has gained special attention of researcher community due to its significant role in medicinal industry as well as processing potential.

Aonla or Indian gooseberry, Emblica officinalis is indigenous to Indian sub-continent. India ranks first in the world in area and production of this crop. Aonla is mainly cultivated in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh etc. It performs well even in the wastelands. Aonla is a plant of great medicinal value and its fruits are a rich source of vitamin C. It has acrid, cooling, diuretic and laxative properties. Dried fruits are useful in hemorrhages, diarrhoea, dysentery, anaemia, jaundice, dyspepsia and cough. Aonla is used in the indigenous medicines (Aurvedic system) viz. trifla and chayvanprash. Fruits are commonly used for preserve (murabbas), pickles, candy, jelly and jam. Besides fruits, leaves, bark and even seeds are being used for various purposes. Very few insect pests are reported on aonla and the details of which are provided here under:

Mealy bug, Planococcus citri Risso (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

It is a highly polyphagous pest feeding on wide range of cultivated/ uncultivated plants. Citrus, mango, guava are few major hosts besides aonla. The bug is a small soft bodied insect the female of which is wingless

Choosing an appropriate location for an apiary is a crucial aspect of natural beekeeping. The productivity, health, and survival of bee colonies are strongly affected by environmental elements such as vegetation diversity, local climate conditions, availability of water, and absence of regular disturbances. In natural farming systems, selecting a site takes on greater importance, as it aims to harmonize with nature, reduce interference, and integrate smoothly with the broader farm ecosystem

An ideal apiary should be situated in a calm, shaded location, away from frequent human activity, loud noises, and pesticide contamination. Bees are extremely sensitive to chemical residues; therefore, the surrounding area should follow organic or chemical-free farming practices. The site must offer year-round access to nectar and pollen sources—like flowering plants, trees, herbs, and native vegetation—to maintain steady nutrition for the bees

Having a clean water source within 500 meters is essential, as bees use water for cooling, honey processing, and nurturing the brood. If there’s no natural water body nearby, shallow containers filled with water and pebbles or floating sticks should be provided. The area should also be shielded from high winds, harsh sunlight, and heavy rains through natural barriers such as hedgerows, bamboo groves, or dense shrubs.

Choosing an appropriate location for an apiary is a crucial aspect of natural beekeeping. The productivity, health, and survival of bee colonies are strongly affected by environmental elements such as vegetation diversity, local climate conditions, availability of water, and absence of regular disturbances. In natural farming systems, selecting a site takes on greater importance, as it aims to harmonize with nature, reduce interference, and integrate smoothly with the broader farm ecosystem. An ideal apiary should be situated in a calm, shaded location, away from frequent human activity, loud noises, and pesticide contamination. Bees are extremely sensitive to chemical residues; therefore, the surrounding area should follow organic or chemical-free farming practices. The site must offer year-round access to nectar and pollen sources—like flowering plants, trees, herbs, and native vegetation—to maintain steady nutrition for the bees. Having a clean water source within 500 meters is essential, as bees use water for cooling, honey processing, and nurturing the brood. If there’s no natural water body nearby, shallow containers filled with water and pebbles or floating sticks should be provided. The area should also be shielded from high winds, harsh sunlight, and heavy rains through natural barriers such as hedgerows, bamboo groves, or dense shrubs. In the context of natural farming, the apiary setup should promote simplicity, bee comfort, and ecological balance. Hives are best placed on raised stands, about 1 to 1.5 feet above the ground, to protect against dampness, pests, and surface heat. Maintaining a gap from 3 to 4 feet between hives—arranged in rows or semicircles—allows beekeepers to work efficiently and ensures clear flight paths for bees returning with food. Hive entrances should preferably face east or southeast to capture early sunlight, encouraging bees to begin foraging sooner. Slightly tilting the hives

Beekeeping symbolizes the biological interdependence between insects, pollination and production of seed. Honey bees have been tirelessly rendering this yeoman service to benefit human-kind since time immemorial. Beekeeping is defined as “the science and art of rearing honey bees for man’s economic benefits”. Since, honey producing bees are restricted to the genus Apis beekeeping is also called ‘Apiculture’. A suitable place selected for housing honey bee hives, equipments and related accessories is referred to as an “apiary”. The invention of movable hive with separable frames in 1851 by L.L. Langstroth gave beekeeping the impetus to flourish. Further fine-tuning of scientific rearing techniques in these movable hives helped in spreading beekeeping to the newer areas.

Honey Producing Species of Bee

About 20,000 bee species are found worldwide. However, only four species viz. the European honey bee (Apis mellifera Linnaeus), the oriental bee (A. cerana Fabricius), the dwarf bee (A. florae Fabricius), and the giant or rock bee (A. dorsata Fabricius) are commonly recognized as honey producing. Amongst these two, only A. cerana and A. mellifera are hived because these build multiple-combs in dark cavities. The other two build single comb nests in the open (Akratnakul 1987a, Ruttner 1987).

Introduction

Honey bees are the most fascinating creature found in the nature and are very closely associated with our cultural heritage. They have been evolved with structural perfection and behavioral instinct to render their service as the best pollinator and enable to realize the potential yields of several cross pollinated crops under various agro-ecological situations. They are indispensable for human survival. The words of the great scientist Albert Einstein quoted below is very pertinent in this context “If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe, then man would only have four years of life left. No more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man”.(Thakur, 2011). Thus, starting from honey hunting since time immemorial to traditional bee keeping and its present transformation to scientific bee keeping has been a continuous endeavor of human for harnessing both direct and indirect benefits from bee keeping activities. Bee keeping has been a very popular agro based enterprise which does not compete with any resource of farming system rather acts as an integral component of Integrated farming system. Now-a-days it has not only attracted the attention of a diverse group of people, administrators and institutions for various purposes but also it has been the point of attraction of the rural poor and youth for their livelihood improvement.

Nearly 70 percent of the cultivated crops all over the world are cross-fertilized and depend on insects like honeybees for pollination. At present, several countries are making desperate efforts to achieve self–sufficiency in food production by physical expansion of the area under cultivation, production of better quality seeds and animals, bringing more waste lands under cultivation, use of fertilizers,pesticides and irrigation. However, in the past decade or so, food production has come to a point of stagnation for some cultivated crops. Emphasis in the future therefore, should be on full use of under used resources. In order to maximize horticultural production, pollinators can be used as an important resource or input as improved variety of seed, timely irrigation, doses of fertilizers and plant protection.

1. ‘Apis’ means …. . .

 a) Waxf b)   Bee      

 c)  Honey d) All of these

 2. Apiculture is also known as …. . .

 a) Bee-keeping b) Wax preparation                

 c) Both a & b d) None of these

 3. Importance of bee-keeping …. . .

 a) It provides honey      

 b) It provides bee wax             

 c) Honey bees are excellent pollinating agents, thus increasing agricultural

 d) All of these

 4. Species of honey bee is …. . .

 a) Apis dorsata b) Apis indica             

 c) Apis florae d) All of these

Apomixis was defined by Winkler as replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction, without fertilization. This definition notably does not mention meiosis. Thus “normal asexual reproduction” of plants, such as propagation from cuttings or leaves, has never been considered apomixis, but replacement of the seed by a plantlet, or replacement of the flower by bulbils are types of apomixis. Apomixis deviates from sexual reproduction in several aspects: modification or complete omission of meiosis, formation of unreduced megaspores, parthenogenetic development of embryo, and autonomous, or pseudogamous, endosperm development (Ramulu et al., 1998). Apomixis produces embryos or seed progeny that are exact genetic replicas of the mother plant. The main advantage of apomixis over sexual reproduction is the possibility to select individual plants with superior characteristics and to propagate them clonally through seeds. Apomictically produced offsprings are genetically identical to the parent plant. In flowering plants, the term “apomixis” is commonly used in a restricted sense to mean agamospermy, i.e. asexual reproduction through seeds.

Apomixis is an asexual method of reproduction through the seed. Apomictic reproduction is widespread and found in over 300 species of plants in 30 families. Interest in apomixis as a reproductive mechanism has increased as its potential and role are being recognized in genome preservation, polyploid build up, propagation of derivatives of wide crosses, permanent fixation of hybrid vigour, evolution, speciation and plant breeding .

Winkler (1906) defined apomixis as “the substitution for sexual reproduction of another asexual reproductive process that does not involve nuclear or cellular fusion.” One of the chief barriers to an understanding of the apomictic phenomenon has been the highly complex terminology as well as the differences of opinion among specialists as to the correct usage of these terms, probably because the phenomenon by itself is complex and in many ways quite different from that of amphimixis. Convincing evidence for the presence of apomixis can be obtained by tracing the steps that are involved in embryonic development. It should be amply clear that as the prerequisite for apomixis, fertilization does not take place at all in any form. Thus there is no normal development of embryo from the egg cell. However, the embryo may develop from an unfertilized egg cell other than the egg cell within the embryo sac.

Apomixis is widely distributed among higher plants. More than 300 species belonging to 35 families are apomictic. It is most common in Gramineae, Compositae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae. Among the major cereals like maize, wheat and pearl millet have apomictic relatives.

I. FILL UPS

1. Development of seed without fertilization is called _____.
2. _____ is the substitution for any sexual nuclear fusion.
3. Apomitic seed will have genetic material only from the _____ plant.
4. In _____ apomixis type, the megaspore cell undergoes the usual meiotic division and forms a haploid embryo sac.
5. The process of seed formation without sexual fusion is known as _____.
6. _____ is defined as the development of embryo from some other cell of embryo sac other than egg.
7. Haploid embryo arises from the egg without fertilization is called_____.

1. APOMIXIS

Development of seed without fertilization. When the seed formation occurs without sexual fusion, the process is known as apomixis. This occurs by several mechanism, however all apomitic seed have genetic material only from the female plant Apomixis may or may not require pollination and pollen tube germination to initiate seed formation, however sexual union.

Introduction

Apomixis is a phenomenon in which there is development of seed without fertilization or sexual fusion. Embryo develops without fertilization in apomixis. Hence, apomixis is an asexual means of reproduction therefore the genotype of plant will be same as of mother plant. Apomixis was first time discovered by Leuwenhock in 1719 in citrus whereas the term apomixis was first time used by Winker in 1908.The main benefit of apomixis over sexual reproduction is the selection of individual plant with superior characters and propagation of clonally through seeds. Higher plants commonly exhibit apomixis. There are more than 300 species belonging to 35 families that exhibit apomixis. Most commonly, it occurs in Gramineae, Compositae, Rosaceae, and Rutaceae.

5.1 APOMIXIS

Apomixis is derived from two Greek words “Apo” (away from) and “mixis” (the act of mixing or mingling). It refers to the occurrence of an asexual reproductive process in the place of normal sexual processes involving reduction division and fertilization. During sexual reproduction, developmental steps occurring inside the ovule produce the female gametophyte (embryo sac) and following a double fertilization event give rise to embryo and endosperm structures. Apomixis can be best described as the reference to the asexual process. In some species, embryo sac is produced not as a result of meiosis and fertilization but by certain asexual processes. The occurrence of such asexual reproductive process in the place of normal seed reproductive processes of reduction division and fertilization is known as Apomixis. Such seedling plants produced in this manner is known as apomicts. ’’Apomixis’’ is used synonymously with ’’agamospermy’’ (Stebbins 1950), referring to the asexual production of seed.

Apomixis (asexual seed formation) is a phenomenon in which a plant bypasses the most fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction—meiosis and fertilization—to form a viable seed. Plants can form seeds without fertilization, and the seed genotype is consistent with the female parent. The development of apomictic technology would be revolutionary for agriculture and for food production as it would reduce costs and breeding times and also avoid many complications typical of sexual reproduction (e.g., incompatibility barriers) and of vegetative propagation (e.g., viral transfer). The application of apomictic reproductive technology has the potential to revolutionize crop breeding. Apomixis is widely distributed among higher plants. More than 300 species belonging to 35 families are apomictic. It is most common in Gramineae, Compositae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae. Among the major cereals maize, wheat and pearl millet have apomictic relatives. Apomixis is reproduction where only one parent passes genes to the offspring (King, 2006). Apomictically produced offspring are genetically identical to the parent (clones).The method is mostly seen in plants, especially flowering plants. Apomixis was defined by Hans Winkler (2008) as the replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction, without fertilization. Propagation from cuttings or leaves, is not apomixis. Natural replacement of the seed by an asexual method is apomixis.