eChapters

Veterinarians will be often required to mention the specific animal husbandry terms for various purposes like writing certificates for various schemes, postmortem, attending court of law in veterolegal cases etc. Hence this chapter aims in refreshing the vets with the common terms associated with different domestic animals and animal husbandry activities. 

Introduction

Almost all agricultural commodities include cereals which are stored in go-downs or store on large scale or small scale because storage of food grains is inevitable both in times of deficit and surplus production (Lal, 1985). The intensification of food production has led to several problems in the post-harvest phase including the major concern of pest infestation during storage. The post harvest losses in India have been estimated to be 12 to 16 million metric tonnes of food grains every year (Singh, 2010). The stored grain pests are serious pests of dried, stored, durable agricultural commodities and of many value-added food products and non-food derivatives of agricultural products worldwide.

ABSTRACT
The ‘steel-drum type’ biogas plant installation programme in Punjab was initiated in the early seventies, whose construction works were entrusted on the Department of Agriculture. Because of their high cost and high failure rates then, only the affluent farmers could afford to install. In the meantime, a cheaper Chinese model, also known as Janta type (dome-type replacing the drum-type) plant, became popular but was still out of the reach of ordinary farmers. With dual objectives of cost reduction and efficient biogas production to make it affordable to small farmers, a coordinated research was initiated. Detailed extension surveys were carried out in Ludhiana district which inferred that the farmers did not install the gas-holding steel drum though they purchased it. A significantly low cost Katcha-Pucca plant model of 15m3/d capacity was developed and installed in Sangrur district. Similar digester was tried for Janta model in which the inlet, outlet and dome (gas holder) were masonry works but the digester was a Katcha pit, the dome of the plant being modified to a semi-circular dome. More than 80 such plants are functional in a single village, and more than 40–50% of the plants installed in Punjab and Haryana are these PAU designs. The chapter deals in greater details on the design aspects and the extensive field works carried out to achieve these successes, along with some relevant facts and figures. The write-up is written as a commentary, rather than a typical chapter, for the benefit and interest to the readers.

11.1    Maturity Indices
    
11.2    Harvesting and Field Handling
    
11.3    Packhouse Operations
    
11.4    Packaging
    
11.5    Precooling

Introduction

Tree growing in hot arid region is basically concerned with the management of trees for conservation and for limited production objectives like wood for fuel, poles and fencing material; leaves for livestock fodder; and pod/seeds for many types use in human diet. The role of trees to conserve the fragile ecosystems of hot arid regions has been well recognized (Mann and Muthana 1984). The trees also provided so many services to mankind, which make them an intricate part of man-livestock-agriculture continuum, the lifeline of hot arid regions (Saxena 1997). 

Drug designing is the approach of finding drugs by design based on their biological targets. The substance used for medical purpose, either alone or in mixture that changes the state or function of cells, organs or organism as a whole is known as a drug. So typically a drug target is a key molecule involved in particular metabolic or signaling pathway that is specific to disease condition or pathology, or to the infectivity or survival of a microbial pathogen. Drugs may be designed that bind to the active region and inhibit the key molecule that causes disease. However these drugs would also have to be designed in such a way that they should not affect any other important molecules similar to the key molecule. These can also be used to enhance the normal pathway of metabolism by promoting specific molecules that may have been suppressed in disease state.

Neisseria meningitidis, also simply known as meningococcus, is a gram-negative bacterium best known for its role in meningitis. It only infects humans; there is no animal reservoir. It is the only form of bacterial meningitis known to cause epidemics. The carbohydrate capsule of N. meningitidis determines its virulence and is targeted by the immune system. Approximately 12 strains of N. meningitidis exist and are characterized by the polysaccharide expressed on its capsule: A, B, C, 29-E, H, I, K, L, W-135, X, Y and Z. Inhibition of Pencillin Binding proteins (PBPs) leads to irregularities in cell wall structure such as elongation, lesions, loss of selective permeability and eventual cell death and lysis. 3-D structure of PBP was studied using Bioinformatics tool. Using Homology modelling, converted protein sequence of penicillin binding protein, extracted from NCBI server, in FASTA format and performed PDB-BLAST to search a desired template. Selection of template was based on lower E-value, bit score and identity. Using MSA with the help of CLUSTAL W software conserved region was found between the target and template sequence, 1K25. The 3-D structure of penicillin binding protein was found with the help of Modeller 9v2 and molecular dynamics was performed using GROMACS software. The docking was performed (Autodock 3.0 software) using 3 ligands viz. Cefuroxime, Chloramphenicol, Cefalotoxime with standard Bioinformatics tools.

Partialy Balance Incomplete Block Design (PBIBD)
    
Interblock and Intrablock Information

The first step of sexual reproduction (Flowering) is of paramount importance in agriculture, horticulture and plant breeding. The change from the vegetative state to the reproductive state is one of the most dramatic events. Flowering leads to an exciting succession of events like anthesis, fruit set, fruit development, maturation and ripening. It provides for the propagation of the species and assists in crop improvement through genetic recombination. Plant growth regulators have remained an important component in horticulture, agriculture from time immemorial, because they were effective means of quantitative as well as qualititative improvement in growth and development of crops. Plant growth and development as well as the responses to environmental factors, are highly regulated by complex and coordinated action of the endogenous hormones (Reddy and Bhagwan, 2014).

ABSTRACT
The global energy demand is increasing day by day. Now-a-days, the supply of global energy is highly dependent on fossil fuels (viz., crude oil, lignite, hard coal, natural gas). But, on one hand the source of fossil fuel is decreasing at a rapid rate, and on the other hand the burning of fossil fuel is also degrading the environment due to huge Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission (FAO/CMS, 2011). Hence, there is an urgent need of an alternate clean energy source that can sustain the future development undeterred while still protecting the environment. Biomass is considered as a sustainable source of clean energy that is useful in steam, fuel and chemicals production. It can be digested in controlled environment to produce biogas. The biogas is a clean, non-polluting and smoke-free fuel (Weiland, 2010) which can be used for applications that include cooking, space cooling/refrigeration, heating, electricity generation and gaseous fuel (CNG) for vehicles (Weiland, 2003). This paper analyses possible alternatives to process and utilise biogas for energy at industrial scale as a petroleum fuels replacement.

Buffalo plays an important role in Indian livestock economics.  India has more than the half of the world buffalo population, contributing 50% of total milk production of the country.  The buffalo is said more productive than an average cow due to the higher fat percentage (7%) in the milk, better feed conversion ability and disease resistance.  Buffaloes have lower reproductive efficiency in the form of delayed age of maturity, longer calving interval, weak / silent estrus, seasonality of breeding, poor libido and poor semen quality. A large number of buffaloes do not conceive due to some gynaecological problems and are being slaughtered every year.  The most commonly observed reproductive disorders are detailed below.

Abstract
 
The field experiment was conducted during rabi season at the Baruipur Research Farm of the Calcutta University using treatments as T1-NPK 100%, T2- Compost 100%, T3- Compost 50%+NPK 50%, T4-Vermicompost. 100%, T5- Vermicompost 50%+NPK 50%, T6-FYM 100%, T7-FYM 50%+NPK 50%, in a Randomised Block Design (RBD) replicated thrice.  The results show that the amount of available N content in soil  has been found to be increased with the progress of crop growth upto 45 days of crop growth and thereafter, the amount of the same decreased with the crop growth irrespective of treatments. The amount of P content in soil has been found to be increased with different treatments, being maintained highest amount (18.30 kg/ha) in the treatment Vermicompost 50%+ NPK50% followed by the treatment where 100% NPK and 100 % vermicompost were applied. The results show that the amount of K content in soil was increased initially and thereafter, the amount of the same decreased with the progress of crop growth.

Abstract

Chhotanagpur plateau is well-known for its quality vegetable production, however, indiscriminate uses of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in different vegetables lead to more yields but of their inferior quality of produces. The over uses of agro-chemicals also drastically affect the soil bio-physico-chemical properties. In this context, an alternative approach was taken into account through present study in order to address such problems. For the purpose, cabbage cv. Golden Acre was grown in organic experimental plots of the university by using ‘Sasyagavya liquid organic formulation’ to observe its effects over the crop and soil bio-chemical properties of the experimental site.Theexperiment was designed after CRBDby adoptingseven treatments i.e.T1: 1% Sasyagavya; T2: 5% Sasyagavya; T3: 10% Sasyagavya; T4: 15% Sasyagavya; T5: 20% Sasyagavya; T6: 25% Sasyagavya and T7: Absolute Control withtheir three replications. Different growth, yield and quality attributes of the crop and soil bio-chemical properties of the experimental soils were studied. 

The focus of world’s trade and economic activities is increasingly being shifted from resource-based economics to knowledge-based economics. This paradigm shift has been triggered due to the implementation of Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) and other related international treaties and policy frameworks. CBD for the first time states that bio-resources are the sovereign property of the countries in which they are found. It further stipulates that access to bio-resources by outside parties can be made only after prior approved consent of the concerned stakeholders and also with mutually agreed terms and conditions for equitable sharing of benefits accrued from the commercialization of biodiversity. To realize such proclaimed rights given in CBD and to fulfill obligations of various other relevant treaties, particularly in the context WTO regulation, it is imperative that the bio-resources-rich nations like India have comprehensive knowledgebase of the biodiversity and associated information systems in accessible form.

Information Sources for Biotechnology
    
Books
    
General Biotechnology Books
    
Animal Biotechnology Books
    
Review Articles
    
Journals
    
Animal Biotechnology Journals
    
Biotechnology Job Listings
    
The Scientist
    
Patents
    
Requirements for Setting up a Biotechnology Laboratory
    
Essential
    
Beneficial
    
Useful
    
PCR
    
Specifications of a Good PCR Macine
    
Gel Documentation System Electrophoresis
    
Laboratory Safety and Hazards

Vegetables constitute a substantial part of human diet supplying vitamins and minerals, in which other food materials are deficient. India has emerged out as the second largest producer of vegetables in the world. More than 25% of fruits and vegetables are damaged by the attack of insect-pests (Pradhan, 1964).Vegetable crop is damaged by both sucking as well as chewing insect-pests. Sucking pests are aphids, whitefly, jassids and bugs attacking in initial stage whereas chewing pests like borers, infesting in flowering and fruiting stage. Sucking pests may transmit the viral diseases which cause severe loss in yield in tomato and okra crops. About 13-14 % of total pesticides used in the country are applied on vegetables. Average pesticide consumption in vegetables in India around 0.678 a.i. kg/ha. Maximum pesticide usage in chilli followed by brinjal, cole crops and okra. Global agro-chemical consumption dominated by fruits and vegetables, accounting 25 % of total pesticide market. Major insect-pests of different vegetable crops and their management are as follows:
 
Cole crops

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var capitata) and Cauliflower (Brassica olercea var botrytis L) are grown in cold and moist climate. It is rich in minerals namely iron, magnesium, phosphorous and sodium. Cole crops were attacked by number of insect pests and cause heavy economic loss. The major insect pests are described below along with their management:

Okra Abelmoschus esculentus L.

Cotton Jassid Amrasca biguttula Ishida (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

Economic importance: Sucking pest cause damage during May to September. Adults are also found on plants such as potato, brinjal, tomato, etc.

Mark of identification and life cycle: Adults are about 3 mm long and greenish yellow during the summer, acquiring a reddish tinge in the winter. The winged adults jump or fly away at the slightest disturbance and are also attracted to light at night. Females lay about 15-38 yellowish eggs on the underside of the leaves, embedding them into the leaf veins. The eggs hatch in 4-5 days. Nymphs are wedge-shaped and are very active and complete five instars with 3-5 days in each instars. Adult live for 11days.

Nature of damage: Damage to the crop is caused by the adults as well as by the nymphs, both of which are very agile and move briskly, forward and sideways. They suck cell-sap from the underside of the leaves and pass through six stages of growth in 7-21 days. They feed constantly on the plant juice. The pest completes seven generations in a year. Damage symptoms: Injury to plants is due to the loss of sap and probably also due to the injection of toxins. The attacked leaves turn pale and then rust-red. With change in appearance, the leaves also turn downwards, dry up and fall to the ground.

Solanaceous Vegetables

Solanaceous vegetables are also infested heavily by several major insect pests.

Brinjal Solanum melongena L.
 
Fruit and shoot borer Leucinodes orbonalis Gunnee (Lepidoptera: Pyraustidae)

Economic importance: Most destructive pest of brinjal, found throughout the country. Besides brinjal, the pest is also known to infest potato, bitter gourd, pea pods, cucurbits and other solanaceous etc. The infestation on brinjal can be as high as 70 per cent. The pest is active throughout the year, except in severe cold weather in North India.
 
Mark of identification and life cycle: Moths wings are white with pinkish or black tings and are ringed with small hair along the apical and anal margins. The fore wings are ornamented with a number of black, pale and light brown spots. Female lays 80-120 creamy white eggs, singly or in batches of 2-4 on the underside of leaves, on green stems, flower buds or the calyces of fruits. Caterpillars are creamy when young, but light pink when full-grown in 9-28 days. Pupate in tough silken cocoons among the fallen leaves with period of 6-17days and adult survive for 2-5days of its life cycle. A single life-cycle takes 22 - 25 days extending up to 74 days during winter and there may be 8 - 12 generations in a year.

Introduction

Agricultural insect pests routinely disturb crop production, yet their effects are relatively minor compared to the economic disruption, Suffering, and death caused by medical pests. So, the medical pests compose an extraordinarily important group of insect pests. Insect pests of public health importance had a remarkable impact on human history and this influence still continues (Higley et al., 1989). Diseases carried by insect are prevalent in many parts of the world, particularly the tropical and subtropical countries. These organisms have the capacity to inflict injury, disease, discomfort, or distress. They may cause direct illness and suffering through stings and bites, infested wounds, or allergic reactions. They may feed on blood or body tissues and thus may also transmit deadly pathogens or parasites. Economic losses associated with these pests are borne not only by the affected individuals and their families, but also by human society in general (Higley et al., 1989).

The oilseeds crop occupies an important position in agriculture economy in the world. Indian agriculture has made considerable progress, particularly in respect of food crops such as wheat and rice in irrigated areas; however, performance has not been so good in case of other crops particularly oilseeds, pulses, and coarse cereals. Therefore, after achieving self sufficiency in food grains the government is focusing attention on these agricultural commodities. On the oilseeds map of the world, India occupies a prominent position, both in regard to acreage and production. India is the 4th largest edible oil economy in the world and contributes about 10 percent of the world oilseeds production, 6-7% of the global production of vegetable oil, and nearly 7 percent of protein meal. This sector also has an important place in the Indian agricultural sector covering an area of about 26.5 million hectares, with total production of over 25.3 million tonnes in the triennium ending 2015-16 (GOI, 2016). This constitutes about 14.8 per cent of the gross cropped area in the country. A wide range of oilseed crops is produced in different agro-climatic regions of the country. Insects-pests are one of the limiting factors in the production of oilseed crops. Management of these pest problems by using possible control techniques could increase the quality and quantity of the products. These crops are damaged by a more number of insect pests, of which some are more serious. These pests can be effectively controlled by the integration of different techniques such as use of various safe insecticides/biopesticides, some modification in cultural practices and use of pest tolerant varieties. Integrated pest management approaches will help to increase the production and productivity of oilseed crops by reducing the pest damage without any adverse effect on the agro- system and erosion in the environment. 

Pest wise information of oilseed crop and management of major pests are described below.