eChapters

In today’s technology driven 21^st century, software has become an integral part of our day to day work. Starting from checking day’s schedule in tablet after waking up in the morning till setting up alarm before going to bed at night, we are using numerous software applications in a day without even realizing the efforts spent to make those applications work perfectly every time we use it. If we look deeply, each software application in computer or in any electronic/computer controlled device go through multiple rigorous cycles of testing to ensure that it is working as intended after it was built by developers and before it was launched in market for public use. In software industry, this process is termed as software quality assurance (QA) or software testing which is being considered as one of the most flourishing verticals of IT software services sectors in 21^st century.

Software testing is one of the most important phases of software development life cycle and it consumes anything between 10% to 45% of project budget depending on the type of the software and methodology followed in the development and testing life cycle. There are different types testing e.g. unit testing, integration testing, system testing, user acceptance testing, alpha, beta testing which are exercised during the testing phase and QA team needs to provide the sign off before any product is released and implemented in production or in consumer market. With the ever increasing complexity of today’s software products along with the competitive market due to easy availability of multiple product options/vendors, the importance and awareness of software quality assurance has increased over years. Consequently, various software testing methodologies have been evolved in last two decades in order to perform testing in more structured and controlled manner. In addition, there is a continuous urge for improving the operational efficiency of the testing process in the organizations in order to produce better quality software at less cost.

Tissue culture is the culture and maintenance of plant cells or organs in sterile, nutritionally and environmentally supportive conditions (in vitro). Conventional breeding methods are the most widely used for crop improvement. But in certain situations these methods have to be supplemented with plant tissue culture techniques, either to increase their efficiency or to achieve an objective not possible through conventional methods.

The art of Indian traditional knowledge regarding herbal medicine has a long history and can be considered as a potential source of new medicine. India has great potential in the market for herbal medicine, which is evident by the fact that medicinal plants required to prepare 50% of the drugs mentioned in the British Pharmacopoeia are reported to be present in the Western Himalayan region alone and India has approximately 8% of the world’s biodiversity, including plant genetic diversity with medicinal properties (Singh, 2006). Traditional medicine is widely used in rural areas, where 70% of the country’s population resides. Almost 75% of the medicinal plants grow naturally in different states of India. These plants are known to cure many ailments in animals.

Ethno Veterinary Practices

Ethno Veterinary Practices, also known as Traditional Veterinary Medicinal Practices are regarded as information gained over a period of time passed on from generation to generation. It is a community based functional knowledge system which has been developed, preserved and refined by generations of people through continuous interaction, observation and experimentation with their surrounding environment. Rural farmers mostly rely on ancestral ethno veterinary practices to deal with the diseases of their livestock and poultry. Veterinarians also show considerable interest in the medicinal plants, employed in traditional systems. This emerging trend in favour of herbal medicine is also due to the issues related to the antimicrobial drug resistance and drug residues in foods (milk/meat/eggs) of animal origin.

SANTOSH P. SARANGAMATH & VIVEK M. PATIL

While System Software like device drivers and utilities enables the application software to interact with the computer hardware, Programming Software like compilers, debuggers and interpreters provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs. However, most common users interact with their computers using Application Software, which enables them to carry out various daily tasks.

Application Software

Application software is programs that work with the operating system software to help the computer to do specific types of work. Applications are the pieces of software that perform tasks for the user besides helping the computer to operate (i.e. the task of system software). Applications range from games, calculators, and word processors (document creation programs). Application software can be easily divided by looking at exactly what function they serve. Listed below are some common types of software which one may encounter while using a computer. Application Software can be categorized into :

1.    Introduction    71
2.    Microorganisms in Food Industry    72
    2.1.    Microorganisms as the agents of fermentation in  
        traditional fermented foods, 73
    2.2.    Microorganisms as the source of food, 83
    2.3.    Microorganisms as a source of food supplements, 86

3.    Microorganisms in Pharmaceutical Industry    92

    3.1.    Antimicrobial agents from microorganisms, 92
    3.2.     Microorganisms as probiotics, 97
    3.3.    Microbial enzymes in  pharmaceuticals, 98
    3.4.    Mushroom nutriceuticals, 98

Greenhouses have become an essential part of modern agriculture as they offer controlled environments for plant growth, research, and horticultural practices. This chapter discusses the various applications of greenhouses, which include extending growing seasons, improving crop yields, supporting botanical research, and producing ornamental plants. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of repair and maintenance in greenhouse operations. Understanding the repair and maintenance protocols is crucial to ensure the sustained functionality of heating systems, water management, and structural components.

7.1 General

Science and technology have been advancing rapidly, but unfortunately, their impact has been largely negative. Pollution is not the only issue we face today, but also the depletion of fossil fuels, climate change, and excessive land degradation. The persistent presence of heavy metals in soil poses a significant threat to our planet. Many efforts have been made to remediate soils contaminated with toxic chemicals.

There are several issues that need urgent attention at the moment, and a solution is necessary to tackle them all at once. Biochar is a great option because of its numerous benefits, such as a large surface area, high porosity, high carbon sequestration rate, excess nutrients, and potential to produce syngas and bio oil. By using biochar, we can reduce the bioavailability of pollutants in soil, combat climate change by sequestering carbon, and reduce the use of fossil fuels by producing syngas and bio-oil. Additionally, biochar improves soil health, which can contribute to food security.

1. Introduction

2. Human Genome Project

3. Development of Bioinformatics

3.1. Indian scenario

4. Plant Genome Model

5. Components of Plant Genome Database

5.1. Stock centre databases

5.2. Genome mapping database

5.3. DNA sequences

6. Agricultural Research Service and National Research Initiative

6.1. Objectives of plant genome programme

6.2. GIBN Trans – pacific digital library experiment plant genome databases

7. Plant Genome Databases

7.1. Vegetable genome databases

7.1.1 Mendel-Plant Gene Nomenclature Database

7.2. Others

7.2.1. Bean Genes – Phaseolus / Vigna sp. Database

7.2.2. Solgenes Database

7.2.3. Soybase

7.3. Other data bases

7.3.1. PGDB (Pathway genome data base)

7.3.2. Demeter’s genome

8. Tools of Bioinformatics

9. New Directions in Genome Database at Stanford

10. Navigating the World Wide Web

11. Virtual Genome Centre (VGC)

11.1. Programmes at the VGC

12. Impact of Gene Chips and Micro Arrays

13. Applications and Impacts

14. Bottlenecks

15. Future Thrust

Term Biotechnology was first coined in 1919 by Karl Ereky which means products are produced from raw materials with the aid of living organisms.

Bio means life.

Technology means application of knowledge for practical use.

Computer played a distinctive role in the growth of most advanced, precise and highly sensitive instruments especially in medical and analytical instrumentation technology. Due to the development of different kinds of software the instrumentation analysis has become easy, rapid and result oriented. Auto sampling, development of new methods for detection analysis and the validity of new developed method have been possible with no trouble. Once the standardization of method is over and saved, it can be applied at any time to integrate the unknown samples and their data calculation. Thus, it avoids repetition in calculation and the end result is time saving technique due to the development of computer-organized system in analysis.

The results produced are more reliable and reproducible through various computer based instruments e.g. scanning machines, blood analyzer, gas chromatography (GC), amino acid analyzer (AAA), atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) etc.

HPLC is a technology or a system that works on the basis of software. There have been many definitions of computer shielded HPLC, such as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-speed liquid chromatography (HSLC), high efficiency liquid chromatography (HELC), and simply liquid chromatography (LC).

In agriculture, sensors can monitor soil, water, vegetation, and environmental conditions. They assist farmers in enhancing crop quality, optimizing water usage, and making informed fertilizer choices.
CROP MONITORING
The primary function of remote sensing in agriculture is to assess crop health. Optical (VIR) sensing enables the observation of wavelengths beyond the visible spectrum, such as infrared; these wavelengths are highly responsive to crop vitality, damage, and stress. Recent advancements in this technology have enabled farmers to monitor their fields and execute prompt crop management decisions. Remote sensing for crop identification facilitates the detection of crops impacted by weather-related circumstances, pests, and other factors.
Pest Detection
Drones can administer insecticides and herbicides with greater precision, reducing chemical consumption and environmental repercussions. Drones can minimize chemical application by targeting specific regions impacted by pests or weeds, thereby safeguarding beneficial insects and mitigating the danger of pesticide resistance. Drones can also be utilized to deploy biological control agents, including beneficial insects or fungi, to address pest issues in an environmentally sustainable way.
Irrigation Management
A primary application of UAV technology in smart agriculture is crop irrigation management, which enhances water consumption efficiency by delivering the precise quantity of water at the most suitable location and time. UAVs equipped with suitable sensors can identify regions of a crop that necessitate supplementary irrigation. This positively impacts overall crop productivity. The

Introduction
Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most widely cultivated cereal crops globally and holds significant economic and food security value across diverse agroclimatic regions. In India, its multifaceted utility as food, feed, and industrial raw material underscores its relevance in national agriculture. With the expansion of hybrid cultivation, climate-resilient breeding, and commercial seed markets, the need for precise and dependable varietal identification has become increasingly critical. Traditional methods of cultivar identification, which relied primarily on morphological characteristics evaluated under the Distinctness, Uniformity, and Stability (DUS) framework, have shown considerable limitations due to their environmental dependence, subjectivity, and limited resolution among closely related genotypes (Verma et al., 2023; Jamil et al., 2021). Morphological traits, although historically pivotal in classification, are often confounded by genotype-environment interactions, multigenic inheritance, and developmental plasticity. Consequently, accurate varietal authentication using such traits becomes impractical, particularly in crops like maize where morphological similarity among hybrids is frequent (Poets et al., 2020; Verma et al., 2023). This challenge has driven the development and adoption of molecular techniques such as DNA fingerprinting, which offers a robust, reproducible, and environmentindependent alternative for cultivar and germplasm identification (Jamil et al., 2021).
DNA fingerprinting involves the use of specific DNA markers to distinguish and characterize plant genotypes based on their genetic makeup. The concept, introduced by Paul Hebert in 2003, was originally proposed as a supplement to morphological taxonomy and has since evolved into a cornerstone of modern plant breeding and germplasm management. This technique has been instrumental in multiple domains of crop improvement, including genetic diversity analysis, heterotic grouping, marker-assisted selection, and varietal purity testing. Moreover, in the context of intellectual property rights and seed certification, DNA-based identification plays a vital role in enforcing breeder rights and ensuring seed quality in both public and private breeding sectors (Poets et al., 2020). Its utility is further underscored by its ability to detect essentially derived varieties (EDVs), resolve disputes in seed authenticity, and support biodiversity conservation efforts through accurate germplasm cataloging (Jamil et al., 2021; Verma et al., 2023).
Given these wide-ranging applications and advantages, the present chapter aims to comprehensively assess the evolution and current status of DNA fingerprinting technologies, with specific emphasis on their application in maize variety and germplasm identification.

Drones have transformed agricultural operations, especially in crop monitoring, by providing farmers with an efficient and economical method to collect real-time data on their crops. Drones, outfitted with sophisticated sensors, cameras, and imaging technology, can obtain intricate aerial perspectives of extensive agricultural landscapes. This enables farmers to oversee crop health, identify early indicators of diseases, pests, and nutrient deficits, and evaluate water levels or irrigation requirements. Drones offer essential insights for precision agriculture, enabling farmers to make informed decisions that enhance output, minimize resource use, and improve overall crop management. Drones’ capacity to swiftly and precisely cover extensive regions has rendered them an essential instrument in contemporary agriculture.
UNDERSTANDING DRONE CROP MONITORING
Crop monitoring using drones is the deployment of drones fitted with specialized sensors and imaging systems to collect data regarding crops and their environment. The data undergoes processing and analysis, yielding outcomes that offer farmers practical insights to enhance crop output, decrease input costs, and mitigate environmental effect. The goal is to employ technology to enhance understanding of crop performance, so enabling more informed management decisions.
The procedure for drone crop monitoring generally encompasses the subsequent steps:

Farm tractor designs and styles differ greatly. Tractors are often used on a daily basis for several agricultural and non-agricultural tasks by attaching or operating light, medium to heavy implements, equipment and machineries according to the requirement and hp of tractors. Tractors are very versatile and can be used on sandy (light textured), loamy (medium textured) and clayey (heavy textured) soil at different topographic and agro-climatic conditions. Earlier, the proportion of tractor usage in agricultural and non-agricultural work was 70:30. This proportion has increased to about 55: 45 over the past two to three years. It is expected to reach 50:50 in (agricultural:non-agricultural applications) in the coming years. The major application of farm tractors for agricultural and non-agricultural sectors is given below.

Proper selection of a fungicide and its application at the correct dose and the proper time are highly essential for the management of plant diseases. The basic requirement of an application method is that it delivers the fungicide to the site where the active compound will prevent the fungus damaging the plant. The fungicidal application varies according to the nature of the host part diseased and nature of survival and spread of the pathogen. The method which are commonly adopted in the application of the fungicides are discussed

Introduction

The role of knowledge management as the key source for competitive advantage in our organizations has become a hotly debated topic. Indeed, it is a core competency for creating competitive advantage. In this environment that knowledge management is vital, therefore, at first we should determine knowledge management situation, and then to achieve a desired point, formulate a knowledge management strategy.

ABSTRACT

The present paper highlights the implication of geochemical strategic tools to choose suitable site selection on the coastal region. Geochemical tools and geomorphological survey have been also deployed to identify the suitable site. The geomorphology of the site A reveals enough fresh water accumulation was found and the two elevated crest and the adjacent trough (low land) with surrounding areas further support the fact. The water quality of this site exposes very good quality (< 200ppm TDS) and the dissolved major anions (HCO3, SO4, Cl) and cations (Ca, Mg, Na, K) concentration are well within drinking water standards. The soil samples are of medium to coarse sand nature showing high porosity (40 to 50%) with mica flakes acting as less permeable in nature. The water quality shows very good in nature and similar to Site A. The soil characters additionally proved good in porosity and permeability (SAR 1.5 to 2.1).

2.1 INTRODUCTION

GIS is a tool that can be used in varied disciplines ranging from civil engineering to business. Remote sensing data is often brought into GIS to have a complete data set in many natural resource application areas. Full capability of GIS is not used widely. Many a times people use GIS only for digitising maps and to do simple query on maps. But it can also be used in modeling, simulation and forecasting, only then one may regard GIS technology is utilised to its full potential. Some GIS softwares handle simple problems for location based services while other complex softwares posses advanced modules to do all types of spatial, network and 3D analysis. Integration of softwares used in natural resources study are being interfaced with GIS to create scenarios.

Remote sensing and GIS technology is useful in the following fields:

Water is a primary source of life and sustains all human activities such as domestic needs, agriculture, industries etc. The allocation and management of water resources is becoming a difficult task due to increasing demands, decreasing supply and diminishing quality. This calls for judicious use of water resources. The geomorphology describes the environment in which the hydrological processes operate. A strong mutual correlation exists between geomorphological variables and hydrological characteristics. Such relationship can be applied to both surface and groundwater regime. Thus the linking of geomorphological parameters with hydrological characteristics of the basin provides a simple way to understand the hydrogeomorphological behaviour of different basins and particularly of un-gauged basins.

During the last few years various applications of hydrogeomorphology with reference to the Geographic Information System (GIS) and various other techniques have emerged as an extensively effective tool for analyzing and prioritizing natural resource management alternatives. Because natural resource management problems are spatial in nature the GIS technology provides a tool for defining the extent of the problem, and facilitates the design and implementation of alternative management strategies. The GIS is used to estimate the hydrogeomorphological parameters of the watershed, which can be used in watershed planning and management at micro and macro levels. The results of the study can be utilized to infer the hydrological features like runoff potential, infiltration and groundwater recharge of the region. Some of the applications of hydrogeomorphological studies are described below:

Starch is the most abundant polysaccharide carbohydrate reserve which is available in different parts of plants such as roots, stem, leaves, seeds, flowers, and fruits. It is considered an excellent source of energy and plants utilizes carbon from it for their metabolic activities (Smith, 2001). It is composed of glucose units linked together by glycosidic bonds to form amylose and amylopectin polymeric chains (Abbas et al., 2010).

The term nanoscience defines controlling or modifying the shapes and sizes of the materials such that they lie in the range of a nanometre (1 nm = 10^-9 m) scale, typically 1-100 nm (Chavada et al., 2016). The application of these materials and systems by their suitable designing and production is what is known as nanotechnology. Richard Feynman, in 1959, first discussed the possibility of this advanced technology. However, the term was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974 (Chavada et al., 2016).

Introduction

Nanoparticles are minute particles with at least one dimension that measures less than 100 nanometers. They have been extensively studied in various f ields including medicine, biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, and environmental science. Nanoparticles have several unique properties, such as a high surface area to volume ratio, enhanced reactivity, and optical, electrical, and magnetic properties that differ from the bulk material. These properties make nanoparticles suitable for a variety of biomedical applications, including diagnosis, imaging, drug delivery, and therapy. This chapter will discuss the current and potential applications of nanoparticles in healthcare and research.

Introduction to Nanotechnology in Agriculture
Nanotechnology, the science of manipulating materials at the atomic and molecular scale, typically between 1 and 100 nanometers is revolutionizing various industries, including agriculture. Its unique ability to control matter at such a small scale offers unprecedented opportunities to enhance agricultural productivity, sustainability and efficiency. This introduction provides a comprehensive overview of the role of nanotechnology in agriculture, highlighting its potential applications, benefits and future prospects.
Understanding Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology involves the design, production, and application of materials and devices by controlling shape and size at the nanometer scale. At this scale, materials exhibit unique physical, chemical and biological properties that differ significantly from their bulk counterparts. These properties include increased surface area, enhanced reactivity and unique optical and electrical behaviors, making nanomaterials highly versatile and effective for various applications.

The main objective of nanomedicine broadly defined as the comprehensive monitoring, repairing and improvement of all human biological systems, working from the molecular level using engineered devices and nanostructures to achieve medical benefit. Nanomedicine is the nanomachine of diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease and traumatic injury, relieving pain, and of preserving and improving human health, using molecular tools and molecular knowledge of the human body. Nanotechnology applications in medical science can be essential in achieving this goal. These applications involves extensive surveillance, control, creation, repair, and defence of all biological human systems, employing designed nanodevices and nanostructures which works in molecular level.

Mulching

The technique of covering the soil with plastic films or natural crop left over (residues) for soil and water conservations is called mulching.

This technique was practiced by farmers using dry leaves straw, trash, stones etc to conserve water. Presently plastic film have come into use for the purpose of mulching due to inherent advantages.

Within a few weeks after November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen made the discovery of X-rays, they were being used in medicine and many sophisticated medical applications. This single discovery of X-rays revolutionized the entire medical field and developed into a separate discipline in the diagnostic and therapeutic applications in human beings and animals. On 10 December, 1901, Roentgen received the first Nobel Prize for Physics in recognition for discovery of X-rays. Radiography in veterinary practice may not always be used to arrive at a final diagnosis of the disorders. In the last few years, various types of X-ray scanners have been developed that allow highly detailed views of a particular section of the body. One type, known as a computerized tomography (CT) scanner, sends narrow beams of X- rays at various angles through a patient’s body. The information obtained from the X-rays is processed by a computer to produce an image of a cross-section of the body. The image shows much more detail than an ordinary X-ray picture. A section of the body can be studied in three dimensions by producing a series of adjacent cross-sectional images. Nevertheless, radiography remains a valuable modality in diagnostic purposes and has significantly extended the usefulness in medicine and research.

Abstract

Remote sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object or phenomenon without having any contact with the object concerned. Geographical information system is a tool to create, manage, retrieve and query spatial databases. Remote sensing in conjunction with Geographical Information System (GIS) has wide applications in all spheres of life and especially in agriculture. Specifically, this paper reveals some of the applications of remote sensing and GIS in the field of crop condition assessment viz., crop type classification, crop stress detection, crop yield estimation and pest and disease monitoring.

Keywords : Remote Sensing, GIS, Yield Forecasting, Crop Stress, Pest and Disease Monitoring

1.0 Introduction

Remote sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object or phenomenon without there being any physical contact. The information is so collected using a device called a sensor. The sensors are mounted on a platform at an advantageous position. Accordingly the remote sensing is called ground based (sensor is hand held or mounted on mast), air borne (sensor is on a balloon or aero plane) or space borne (sensor is mounted on a satellite). The basic principle in remote sensing is that each and every object has unique reflecting property like human thumb impression and when the solar energy is falling on an object a part of it gets reflected, which carries the information about the object. The reflected light is converted in to reflection percentage of incoming solar radiation. This percentage of reflection can be used to work out the vegetation indices which are surrogate measure of crop condition.

Geographical Information System (GIS) is software system which enable Collection of large volume of data with spatial relation Integration of data from different source is possible Analyze such data for our requirement Present the data in different formats (maps, table and reports)

Applications of Remote Sensing

The era of satellite remote sensing was open in the 1960s when cameras and electronic sensors were mounted on spacecraft. Nowadays there is a big assortment of satellite systems actively recording information about the Earth. A wide variety of imagery is available from satellites. Both active and passive sensors, operating from the microwave to the ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum collect a large amount of information about the earth’s surface every day. Each of the systems vary in terms of their spatial, spectral, radiometic and temporal resolution. Those characteristics play an important role in defining which applications the sensor is best suited for. The main benefits of satellite remote sensing are the following:

Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that may or may not be radioactive,but if radioactive, have half-lives too long to be measured. These isotopes decay into stable products. Eg. ¹⁴C having 6protons and electrons with 8 neutrons.

Most elements of biological interest (including C, H, O, N, and S) have two or more stable isotopes. Among the stable isotopes, the most useful as biological tracers are the heavy isotopes of carbon and nitrogen.

Abstract

Support Vector Machine (SVM) is a classification and regression prediction tool, widely employed in different fields of science and engineering. A review on some recent plant bioinformatics applications using SVM is made. Different soft wares for SVM are also explained. There is a growing amount of plant genomes data currently available from different sources. Recent advances made using SVM and Feature selection in plant bioinformatics are reviewed

Introduction

Recent developments in genomic and post-genomic research have generated a vast amount of biological data. This data is growing exponentially with the advancement of research technologies. Several plant genomes have been sequenced recently. For instance, the complete sequence of Arabidopsis thaliana and the draft sequence of rice are now available^[1]. Also, sequencing of several other plants including maize, tomato, sorghum, etc is in progress. Considering the amount and complexity of this data, it is impossible for an expert to analyze and compare the data manually. Thus, there is an increasing need for computational methods that can efficiently store, organize and interpret this large amount of data.

Surface anatomy of the organs of left side of abdominal cavity

Rumen

Topography of the rumen: The left side of the abdomen in cow is completely occupied by the rumen except for a small area occupied by the reticulum at its cranial end and the spleen on the craniodorsal aspect sandwiched between the dorsal border of rumen and the diaphragm. The rumen lies in contact with the left abdominal wall extending from seventh or eight intercostal space where it touches the diaphragm to the transverse plane of the tuber coxae where it almost touches the pelvic inlet.

Palpation of rumen: The rumen can be palpated in the left flank of the abdomen and is usually palpated in the dorsal third of the flank region. In ruminants, the contraction begins at reticulum and it continues in rumen in succession and hence is considered as ruminoreticular contraction cycle. It begins with double contraction of reticulum followed immediately by the contraction of rumen. The rumen contraction begins in the cranial sac and progresses to the dorsal sac and then to the ventral sac. During the contraction of the ventral sac, the dorsal sac is forced out which appears as a bulging at the paralumbar fossa. After this, there is a pause of 30 seconds and thereafter the second ruminal contraction begins which is usually associated with eructation. The ruminoreticular contraction cycle ends with the end of second ruminal contraction. Following this, the second cycle begins. Thus there are two palpable rumen contractions per minute. This rate of contraction increases to 2.8 contractions per minute during the act of feeding of the animal.

Site for nerve block

Brachial plexus block

The brachial plexus is the key source of nerve supply to the fore limb. Loss of sensation below the elbow is achieved by blocking the nerve roots contributing to this plexus. In ox it is formed by the ventral branches of 6th to 8th cervical and 1st and 2nd thoracic spinal nerves. These nerve roots pass over the lateral aspect of the middle third of the first rib before anastomosing to form the plexus. All these nerve roots can be blocked by injecting anaesthetic solution on these nerves at the middle third of the lateral surface of the first rib. To reach this site, the needle is inserted between the thoracic wall and the medial face of the shoulder at the level of acromion process of the scapula about 12 to 14 cm cranial to it horizontally in the caudal direction.

The blocking of brachial plexus is indicated for operations for reducing the fractures of the bones of fore arm and manus.

Teeth

Estimation of age from appearance of teeth

The teeth are used as a tool for estimation of age of animal. The time of eruption and the stage of wear of incisors are usually considered as parameters for this purpose. The time of eruption of the incisor teeth in ox has been described under the chapter on gross anatomy of head. The eruption time of incisors in other species is described under the chapter on comparative anatomy of head and neck. To differentiate the deciduous teeth from the permanent teeth is important criteria in this process. The deciduous teeth are smaller, their neck is visible just above the gum line and these are usually whitish in colour. The permanent teeth are larger, their crowns are slightly wider and the neck which separates the crown from the root is concealed inside the gums. These are usually yellowish in colour. In ox, all the four incisors (deciduous) are erupted at the age of 4 years.

The permanent teeth start wearing from fifth year onward. The process of wearing commences on mesiolabial side of the masticatory surface. When the entire masticatory surface is in wear, the outer and inner enamel rings are completely separated by yellow dentin and that particular tooth is considered as leveled. In the process of wearing, the gum starts receding and the neck of the tooth is exposed. In ox, usually the wearing begins at I-1 at the age of 6 years, this is followed by I-2 at 7 years, I-3 at 8 years and I-4 at 9 years. Up to the age of 14-15 years usually all incisors fall off but those remained are reduced to small round pegs.

Sites for surgical interventions

Luxation of patella in cattle and horses

The luxation of patella is a condition wherein the patella of the stifle joint (femoropatellar articulation) is locked above the medial ridge of the trochlea of the femur.

Anatomy of femoropatellar articulation of the stifle joint

The stifle joint is a composite joint formed in two parts. One of these is an articulation between the condyles of distal extremity of femur and the condyles of the proximal extremity of tibia (femoro-tibial articulation) and the other is the articulation between the trochlea of the distal extremity of the femur and the articular surface of the patella (femoro-patellar articulation).

The trochlea of the femur consists of two asymmetrical ridges separated by a groove. The medial ridge is more prominent, wider and a little more extended dorsally than the lateral ridge. The two ridges converge ventrally. The articular surface of the patella is more or less quadrilateral or triangular with the base above and apex below. It has a vertical ridge in the middle and it separates the two concave areas of which the medial one is larger than the lateral. The patella is fastened against the trochlea with the help of three types of ligaments. One of these is the capsular ligament which is attached to the periphery of the articular areas of the two segments of the joint. The other one is the medial and lateral collateral ligaments. The third set of ligaments is the patellar (straight) ligaments.

Surface locations for clinical examination on the wall of thorax

Lymph nodes

Prescapular lymph node is palpable as a cylindrical object just cranial to the point of shoulder. Palpation can be performed by putting the base of the hand on the cranial edge of the scapula and pressing forward with fingers. This enables to roll the skin and feel the lymph node flicking underneath the fingers.

Heart

The clinical examination of heart is performed by percussion and auscultation on the thoracic wall.

For percussion of heart, usually the fifth rib is identified opposite the olecranon of a straight vertical limb. Two fields are identified for percussion of heart. (1) The area of absolute cardiac dullness corresponds to the area of contact of the pericardium with the thoracic wall. It gives a flat sound on light percussion. (2) The area of relative cardiac dullness indicates the outline of heart which is covered by the thin margin of lung. It needs somewhat stronger percussion to define this area which is usually difficult in animals. The absolute dullness is used to test the hypertrophy, displacement and pericardial effusion. In ox, the normal area of absolute dullness is explored in the fourth and fifth intercostal spaces. Traumatic pericarditis may result in absolute dullness in these spaces extending above a horizontal line through the shoulder joint. In horse this area is a triangle bounded by the triceps in front, the sternum below and the lung along the line joining these two. On left side of the normal horse, the dullness extends about 7 cm above the olecranon in the fourth intercostal space and about 3 cm above the olecranon in the fifth space. On the right side, the dullness extends about 3 cm above the olecranon in the fifth space only. In dog, the area of absolute dullness extends about 1 to 2 cm above the sternum in the fourth and fifth intercostal spaces in the line with the corresponding costochondral junction.

True/False

Q.1.    In many clinical research studies, the regression analysis is used to develop models for prediction of an outcome from one or more explanatory variables.
Q.2.    Now a days, the linear, logistic and Cox (proportional hazards) regression models are used frequently in medical research.

Abstract

Any country’s socio-economic development essentially depends on land and water resources. Resource depletion takes place when there is an overstretching due the exploding population, calling for prudent management of the resources. Application of remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) tools in the management of natural resources at different levels including watersheds is quite well known. In addition, applied geoinformatics are also used in research on management of these delicate resources also besides characterization. There is a continuous advent in technology in both hardware and software necessitating updation of application scientist/manager. Once an exclusive tool of elite institutions and government agencies, GISnow became an indispensible part of our day-to-day life. As the urge for information intensifies, new applications of GIS continue to evolve. A concerted effort is needed to develop an information system when vast expanses of natural resources are to be managed and a combination of information tools like remote sensing, global positioning system and GIS always updates the database effectively. However, the cost factor should not hinder the applications at micro level. This necessity calls for attention to popularize free and open sources of software (FOSS) and data (particularly digital elevation models (DEM) and satellite imagery) to put the techniques into use by enthusiasts at village level such that a database at a regional level can be built through participatory GIS. It is in this direc tion the av ailab le li terat ure on appl ied geoinformatics coupled with use of FOSS is reviewed and presented in this article to give an idea as to how an open ended information system could be developed to help the management.

Keywords: Natural resources, management, Remote sensing, GIS, FOSS, DEM

Introduction

Gamhian concept of development gained inspiration from villages where local resources met the optimum needs of the poorest of the poor. Gandhiji was of the view that the process of development of the Nation must begin from its villages. In a country like India, where villages are in the majority the prosperity of the Nation can only be ensured when fanners are considered as development managers. The economic liberty of individuals and villages in effect will lead to the prosperity of the Nation. The anomaly in this regard in our country can be seen in the overcrowded cities and desolated a village that is indicative of major gaps in our approach. Acute migration has created a dearth of strong hands in the villages resulting in overcrowded cities, putting tremendous strains on its infrastructure. Thus economy and-ecology of most regions in the country, both rural as well as the urban areas are threatened.

The Independence has been attained by the nation 65 years ago but Economic Slavery is pervasive everywhere in the Rural India. There must be an Economic Independence drive in the country. This will check rising Economic inequity between rural urban regions.

5.1. Australia’s Experience and Approach to Pest Risk Analysis

Australia applies the principles of pest risk analysis for the identification and management of sanitary and phytosanitary risks associated with new trade proposals and, where the need is identified, to the review of sanitary and phytosanitary risks of existing trade. One such trade activity is the intentional importation of exotic plant species not yet established in Australia.

Of approximately 250 000 plant species in the world, 30 000 have been intentionally introduced to Australia since European colonization, along with an unknown number of unintentional introductions, of which about 2 700 have naturalized (Cunningham et al., 2003). Some become problematic plants of which about 300 have become serious weeds of agriculture and natural ecosystems. Clearly, the majority of plant species have yet to be introduced to Australia and some of these would become weeds if allowed into the country.

The weed risk assessment (WRA) system is a decision support tool that is employed by Australia in applying the principles of pest risk analysis to the review of sanitary and phytosanitary risks associated with the intentional importation of exotic plant species not yet established in the country. The WRA system is used specifically to assess the weed potential of such species. It generates a score for a species based on its history as a weed in other parts of the world, climatic suitability to Australia and biological attributes. The weed risk assessment (WRA) system is one means by which the assessment component of pest risk analysis is addressed. The WRA system is a question-based scoring method that can be operated using a computer or manually using paper-based forms. A Microsoft® Excel spreadsheet version of the system, including documentation, has been made available through the International Phytosanitary Portal

Impact Assessment Approach-Quantitative, Qualitative Participatory and Mixed Methods with Their Advantages and Disadvantages

Quantitative research approach

 Qualitative research approach

 Participatory research approach

Mixed method research approach

Advantages of Quantitative Research

Impact assessment approaches
Impact assessment approaches can be classified into four broad categories i.e. quantitative, qualitative, participatory and mixed methods.
i. Quantitative impact assessment approaches
• It focuses on assessing the degree and extent of the impacts quantitatively.
• Some degree of quantification may be necessary in all impact assessments, in order to evaluate the success of the Intervention and the extent of any adverse effects.
• Largely depends on micro-economic approaches following econometric models
• Involving baseline studies: The precise identification of baseline conditions, definition of objectives, target setting, rigorous performance evaluation and outcome measurement
• Costly and limited scope: Limited in the types of impacts which can be accurately measured and may pose difficulties for inference of cause and effect.

Monitoring and Evaluation are the two management tools that help in keeping a control on the extension programmes as well as raising the level of performance. Monitoring refers to an organized process of overseeing and checking the activities undertaken in a project, to ascertain whether it is capable of achieving the planned results or not. Conversely, evaluation is a scientific process that gauges the success of the projector programme in meeting the objectives. The primary difference between monitoring and evaluation is that while monitoring is a continuous activity, performed at the functional level of management, evaluation is a periodic activity, performed at the business level.

Introduction

In Indian agriculture, horticulture sector has made considerable progress after independence and as a result, horticulture has emerged as one of the major drivers of growth in the agricultural and allied sector. The horticulture sector includes large number of crops viz., fruits, vegetables, ornamental crops, spices, tuber crops, plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic crops, mushroom and their post harvest management. On the production and productivity front, the horticulture sector outperformed conventional food crops. Between 200405 and 201415, horticultural output achieved an annual growth of about 7 per cent as compared to around 3 per cent growth in food grain production. This increase in production has come from an increase in acreage and even larger increase in productivity. Over the last decade, the area under horticulture grew by about 3% per annum and annual production increased by 5.4%. Thereby, India has maintained its second rank in the global production of fruits and vegetables, next only to China. India’s fruit productivity is better than that of China, though China is the largest fruit producing country.

The country is currently producing 295.2 million tonnes of horticulture produce from an area of 24.9 million hectares, which has surpassed the estimated food grain production of 275.68 million tonnes (201617). Though the production of food grains and horticultural produce are not meaningfully comparable due to fundamental differences in resource requirements, their farming practices, characteristics of produce and most importantly, their nutritional and medicinal properties as well as energy value. The special attention was given to the this sector, especially after the introduction of the Horticulture Mission for North East and Himalayan States (HMNEH) and the National Horticulture Mission (NHM) during 11^th Plan period, owing to bumper fruit production. Given the increasing pressure on land, growth strategies have been focusing on raising productivity through high density plantations, protected cultivation, micro irrigation, quality planting material, rejuvenation of senile orchards and an emphasis on post harvest management and marketing of produce for better price realization.

These three requirements are required to be followed in sequence for getting maximum benefits. However, integrated rural energy concept is a new area of work and not much experience is available in this field as compared to other rural development activities. It is difficult to give any guidelines for planning. One can only recommend approaches and not solutions to planning.

The rural area in developing countries are almost always rich in one or another sources of energy, which could be used separately or in combination with other sources in decentralized small scale units, or even on a household scale. Thus, the problem is one of good planning, management and a strong educational and promotions campaign, rather than the non availability of resources or the lack of technology. Further, after planning, prefect development of device and their effective operation is required.

The purpose of the Integrated Rural Energy Planning project should be clearly defined. It may design either for research and development or demonstration for Popularisation of system, education and training, promotion, health or combination of these.

It is usually better to start with a small size to gain experience and build up confidence before undertaking the large scale project. As defined earlier, one of primary requirement of Integrated Rural Energy Planning is to develop energy demand pattern, energy supply system and optimally match demand with supply.

As a result of a number of health advantages provided by functional foods, a substantial rise in their popularity has been seen in recent years (Keservani et al., 2010).

11.1. Support for Start-Up Finance

Access to finance for start-ups is always difficult due to the problem of asymmetric information. Start-ups lack the kind of financial history which banks use to infer the pay back behaviour and the business capacities of the entrepreneur. Innovative start-ups face the additional problem that it is difficult to assess the viability of their business ideas or the prospects of the markets. In addition, banks and other potential investors often decline to get involved when the relatively small amount of capital requested by a new business is out of proportion with the efforts that the investors must make to screen and evaluate the start-up project.

These problems are even greater for companies engaging in IB models, as doing business with the poor is usually riskier - or perceived as more risky - due to BoP customers’ low ability to pay and the greater vulnerability of value chains. Support for start-up finance is therefore essential. Local IB start-ups often lack funding at all stages of the start-up process: the idea stage, when business opportunities are identified, the seed stage, when the market is assessed and the business model developed, and the start-up stage, when the company is formally set up and all the necessary equipment is procured. Different kinds of financial support will be necessary at all stages.

Classical biological control is one of the important tools for the management of invasive species. This involves the introduction and release of natural enemies, usually from the invaders’ area of origin. During the past decade, increasing concerns have been raised about the potential negative impact of introduced biological control agents on non-target organisms. This has highlighted the need to examine and guide the process of importation and release of natural enemies. The third international standard for phytosanitary measures, ISPM 3: Code of conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents, is specifically concerned with this process. ISPM 3 was endorsed by members of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in 1995.

There is a growing demand and need for biological control across the globe. This has been fuelled not only by the increasing spate of invasive species but also by the need to develop integrated pest management approaches as well as the increased interest in organic production. Classical biological control of arthropod pests and weeds has been carried out successfully for more than a century (Greathead and Greathead, 1992; Julien and Griffiths, 1998). However, over the years, practitioners have become increasingly aware that introduced biological control agents may have undesirable side-effects (Thomas and Willis, 1998; Howarth, 2000; Follet and Duan, 2000; Lynch and Thomas, 2000; Wajnberg, Scott and Quimby, 2000; Henneman and Memmott, 2001). Initially, this concern was limited to the possible impact of these introduced agents on economically important plants and insects (notably, honey bees, silk moths and weed biological control agents). More recently, increased environmental awareness has drawn attention to the potential danger to all indigenous fauna and flora, particularly rare and endangered species.

To address these concerns, a code of conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents was developed with a view to fostering safe importation and release of biological control agents (Greathead, 1997). It was developed over a period of six years and was finally endorsed by FAO member countries at the end of 1995. The code of conduct, the third in a series of international standards for phytosanitary measures developed by the International Plant Protection Convention, was formally published in 1996 as ISPM 3: Code of conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents and is available, with other ISPMs

1. Introduction

Global population is expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050 (UN report, 2019) and food requirement will betwofold of the current levels to feed the growing population. Asia and the Pacific regionaccounts for> 70% of the global population but has only 30% of the world’s arable land (FAO, 2021). An increase in yield of these regions over the years has largely been due to excessive and indiscriminate use of inputs like irrigation, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, agrochemicals etc. and at considerable expense of its natural resources. Most of the pesticide recommendations are also region specific, which are on a few random observations of pest density. Because of low quality of agrochemicals often due to adulteration and increased pest resistance, indiscriminate application is now common especially in high valued crops.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Meaning

The word “Rural” comes from the word “Rurale” which means close to nature and environment, and “Development” means growth or maturation.

Rural development is utilization, protection and enhancement of the natural, physical and human resources to make long-term improvements in rural living conditions. It involves provision of jobs and income opportunities while maintaining and protecting the environment of rural areas.

General Definition

1)     It is based on an operational approach with practicalities with the people covering maximum end users for maximum economic return.

2) Definition by Axinn

R.D. is a process of change among the rural people through change in environment, technology institutions and attitude to eliminate the poverty and improve the way of life.

3) Definition by Miller

R.D. is based on the following components

a)     Development of human resource - It includes the development of rural people by providing education to the rural children and employment to rural youth, socio-economic condition of village can be improved.

b)     Expansion of physical resources - Construction of infrastructures like roads, schools, colleges, post office, bank etc will improve the rural condition.

c)     Extension of communit’s control over the resources.

This chapter introduces approaches for understanding, assessing, and reducing the vulnerability of forest ecosystems to climate change. It examines the impacts of changing climatic conditions on forests and considers factors such as forest fragmentation, biodiversity, tree density, disturbance, and community dependence on forest resources. The chapter discusses methods and models for vulnerability assessment, including indicator-based and spatial approaches, and explains how vulnerability can be mapped and classified. It also considers strategies for minimizing climate impacts and enhancing forest resilience through appropriate management and conservation interventions.