eBook Chapters

1. Introduction

Apricot is among the highly nutritious fruits of Rosaceae family and appreciated for its health promoting contents. Studies have shown that apricot fruit is effective in preventing stomach ulcers and oxidative damages of living systems (Enomoto et al., 2010; Miyazawa et al., 2006). Apricot tree belongs to genus Prunus in the Rosaceae (rose) family. Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) is categorized under ‘stone fruits’, along with peaches, plums, almonds, and some cherries, due to its seed being enclosed in a hard, ‘stone’ like endocarp. This fruit is native to temperate Asia, first discovered growing wild on the mountain slopes of China, and long cultivated in Armenia later.

Throughout its history, apricot has been noted for delicious flavor, delicate velvety fruit surface, and early flowering and fruiting. The name apricot is a corruption of the Arabic and Greek al-paraecox which means the early fruit. The old spelling ‘apricock’ is retained in English until the 17^th century. The fruits are mainly consumed fresh but are also cooked and often stuffed. The high sugar content makes them suitable for drying. In china they were also preserved by salting and smoking. Other uses include fruit leathers, nectars, and liquors (Janick, 2005).

Apricot is commonly known as Armenian plum. Its scientific name Prunus armeniaca derives from the assumption that apricot was known in Armenia during ancient times and has been cultivated there for so long that it is often thought to be native of that place. The cultivated apricot has its origin in North-Eastern China, whereas wild apricot, popularly known as ‘Zardalu’, appears to be indigenous to India. Generally, there are two types of apricot, namely, sweet kernel type and bitter kernel type.

Indian gypsy moth: Lymantria obfuscata: Lymantridae

Eggs are laid by the bulky adult female moth, which has only rudimentary wings and hence cannot fly.  Eggs are laid under the bark on the tree trunks or on fallen leaves. They feed on many shade trees and other trees also.  Feeding is gregarious and done during night. The trees are almost completely defoliated. Management involves spot application of contact insecticides at the beginning, when the larvae are small and before they disperse to the different leaves.

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L) is the most important fruit crop of cold arid regions of India. It is one of the most delicious of temperate fruits having pleasing flavour and truly one of the most delectable of the stone fruits.  Exceptional fruit quality consists of blending of sugar and acidity and strong apricot aroma. It has been appreciated and grown for thousands of years on slopes of mountains in Asia and at least two thousand years in Europe.  There are many uses of apricot. It is enjoyed as fresh fruit but a large portion of the production worldwide is preserved primarily by drying. In China, apricot was not only dried but also preserved by salting and smoking. In Japan, apricot (mume) flowers are revered for their beauty and are used since 7–8th century for ornamental purposes.

Genus : Prunus 
Species : armeniaca L.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16

Of all the temperature fruits belonging to tribe pruneae, apricots after cherries are more exacting in their climatic requirements. For this climate specific, apricots are often described as a fruit that fails where other fruits grow successfully. Apricots lavish continental climate, which is characterized by low rainfall (50 cm per year), warm summers and without much variation in winter temperatures and this winter temperature in temperate regions remain close to -33o C. Apricot trees are said to be drought resistant and can sustains low atmospheric humidity but is very sensitive to low soil moisture content.

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca), also known as Armenian plum, is a delicious fruit with a pleasant flavor and aroma. It is consumed fresh, dried or canned and highly appreciated by many. The name ‘apricot’ (albicocco, albericocco) is most probably derived from the combination of arbor and precox from the Latin word praecocia (precocious), due to its early maturation (Faust et al., 1998).

Origin and Distribution

Apricot is native to north-eastern China whereas wild apricot, known as zardalu, belongs to India. It is introduced in India by the european settlers and missionaries during the late 19^th century.

It is grown in different countries viz., Turkey, Uzbekistan, Italy, Spain, Japan, Algeria, Iran and Pakistan etc. Among these countries Turkey, Uzbekistan and Italy are leading producers of apricot (FAO, 2017). In India, it is grown commercially in hills of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and also in some hills in North-eastern states. It can also be grown in the dry temperate areas like, Ladakh, Kinnaur, Lahul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh and some areas of Jammu and Kashmir. In India, it occupies as area of 13115 ha with a production of 17894 MT (NHB.2010).

• Drought resistant, Salt tolerant and hardy temperate fruit crop
• Highly perishable fruit
• Vitamin A 2600IU
• Thiamine : 217mg/100g
• Wild apricot or Zardalu has originated from India.
• Popular training system – Open vase system
• Apricot bears on spurs and laterally on 1year-old shoots.
• Apricot spur life – 3-4 years
• Ideal thinning agent – NAA @25-50ppm, 20 days after fruit set
• Ideal stage for freezing, canning and drying fully ripe fruits
• Chaubattia Alankar – Kaishu × Charmagz – Low chilling and early ripening
• Chaubattia Madhu – Turkey × Charmagz – Early ripening
• Chaubattia Kesri – St. Amrbois × Charmagz – mid season variety
• Low chilling subtropical varieties – New Castle, Early Shipley, St. Ambroise, Kaisha.

5.1 Introduction

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) is an important fruit crop of temperate regions of India. In India, it is mainly grown in the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand and on a limited scale in North Eastern states. It is popular worldwide owing to their high nutritional value and delicious flavour, which not only can be used as fresh fruit but also has a high importance as processed product (Moradinezhad and Jahani, 2016). Apricot is drought resistant, salt tolerant, hardy and less susceptible to pests and diseases and can be grown with minimum cultural care in the tracts which are otherwise unfit for cultivating other temperate fruits.

The last two decades have seen rapid growth and development in the industrial sector as well as urbanization has increased. Due to globalization and mass production of commodities, the situation in the modern world nothing like ever before. Food and dairy industries are also not left out from this massive expansion. Due to changing behavior and food consumption habits too, there has been a surge in the risk of foodborne illness. This has created a problem in terms of public health and sustainability

Aquaculture is now the food production industry with the greatest rate of growth in the world due to its continued enormous output expansion. However, the sector's sustainability is in jeopardy because of the anticipated impacts of climate change, which are both a present and a future reality. In addition to the numerous stresses that fish stocks currently face-such as overfishing, habitat loss, pollution, disturbances, and invasive species climate change is an extra one. It is necessary to include other anthropogenic forces when assessing the effects of climate change. The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events can have significant consequences, such as storms that destroy property or flood freshwater fields. Different physiological impacts and pressures will alter the growth and development of fish and shellfish, thereby making them more vulnerable to infections and illnesses. In this research, we examine how climate change may affect aquaculture productivity and how that may affect the sustainability of the industry. There has been discussion on several aspects of a changing climate, including increasing temperatures, sea level rise, illnesses and toxic algal blooms, altered rainfall patterns, the unpredictability of outside input sources, altered sea surface salinity, and extreme weather events.

Introduction

In recent years aquaculture has become the fastest growing food production sector in the world with 10% annual growth rate in comparison with 3% for livestock and 1.6% for capture fisheries. FAO (2000) estimates that by 2030, over half of the fish consumed by the world’s people will be produced by aquaculture. It is not only the demand for animal protein but the high returns associated with aquafarming when compared with agriculture or animal  husbandry that has accelerated the growth of aquaculture. Thus, in the last two decades aquaculture with greater emphasis on shrimp farming made fast strides among Asian countries including India. The culture of carps in freshwater and shrimps in brackishwater are the two main culture practices followed in India. During nineties around 10% of 2.7m ha. brackishwater area has been put under farming along with a number of other supporting and ancillary units viz.; hatcheries, feed mills, processing and packaging industry etc.

Aquaculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and seaweed, has grown exponentially in recent decades due to overfishing and the increasing demand for seafood. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of aquaculture practices, including its methods, species, and technological advancements. It also delves into the environmental impacts associated with aquaculture, both positive and negative. Key issues such as habitat destruction, water pollution, genetic diversity, and using wild fish for feed are discussed, along with mitigation strategies and sustainable practices. The chapter concludes with a discussion on policy frameworks and future directions for minimizing the environmental footprint of aquaculture while maximizing its potential to contribute to global food security.

1. Introduction

Aquaculture, or the farming of aquatic organisms, has become a significant component of the global food system. It encompasses the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of fish, shellfish, algae, and other aquatic organisms in various aquatic environments including freshwater, brackish water, and marine water. Aquaculture's rapid expansion has been driven by the decline in wild fish stocks due to overfishing, as well as the growing global population and increased per capita consumption of seafood (FAO, 2020).

Background

In simple term, what agriculture is to land aquaculture is to water and can be defined as the art, science, and business of cultivating plants and animals in water. Considering scope of inland aquaculture in the present discussion would be limited mostly to grow desirable fish/prawn (hence forth termed as fish) in fresh water ponds and to some extent to their seed production in hatcheries. The important activities in aquaculture includes deliberate interventions during the rearing process or life cycle of the stock, management of the culture system and production process so as to increase survival and production of stock. Since, the main goal of aquaculture is to maximize the fish production per unit land/water resources per unit time which primarily depends on the degree of management and intervention. The important forms of intervention and management practices are regular stocking, fertilization, feeding, liming etc. The degree of care taken or effort put in these aspects would determine the level of production.

Introduction

Market intelligence is a basic requirement for attaining global trade competitiveness in agriculture and allied sectors. In a free market economy, a commodity’s current price and expected future price have consequences on its future supply as the entrepreneur’s production plans are accordingly changed. Additionally market intelligence on non-price issues like changes in consumer perceptions, traceability and quality related issues of HACCP is also equally important. This can guide the farmers in deciding the quality and the quantity of a commodity to be produced for particular target market/market segment. Market analysis and quantity that is likely to be in demand and price forecasts for fish are important to producers for rational production planning and for processors/exporters for taking right marketing decisions. Domestic and international input suppliers, bankers, insurers and policy analysts need market intelligence to estimate the requirements of fishers at macro-level for their advance planning.

Introduction

In present times aquaculture is being practiced using both conventional or non-conventional methods with considerable variations. Aquaculture can be termed as – extensive, semi-intensive and intensive based on operations and involvements. An increase in the intensity of aquaculture requires an increase in capital as well as operational costs.

Here we will examine the three main levels of aquaculture used in various habitats and later consider the conventional methods of aquaculture.

Different Levels of Aquaculture

Fish culture practices can be classified into three different kinds or levels on the basis of the intensity of aquaculture in terms of capital as well as operational costs. The chances of crop failure often increase with increasing intensity of aquaculture, which may involve: 

1. Alkalinity is expressed as equivalents of calcium carbonate.

2. Adult fish retained for spawning is called as brood stock.

3. The population, number or weight of a species that is present in that environment is called as carrying capacity.

4. The discharge from a rearing facility, treatment plant or industry is called as effluent.

5. The ability of water to neutralize soap is due to presence of cations (calcium and magnesium).

6. Very soft water – 0 to 20 ppm as CaCO3 .

7. Soft water – 21 to 50 ppm as CaCO3 .

8. Hard water – 51 to 500 ppm as CaCO3 .

9. Very hard water – above 500 ppm as CaCO3 .

10. Aquaculture is believed to be first practices as early as 2000 B.C. in China.

Rural development is greatly aided by aquaculture funding, which improves rural people's standards of living and promotes sustainable economic growth. By analyzing its effects on job possibilities, food security, income production, and poverty reduction, this study investigates the role of aquaculture finance in rural development. It addresses several funding sources and tools used in aquaculture, such as grants, microloans, investment plans, and microfinance, emphasizing the success of these financial tools in helping small-scale rural farmers and business owners. This study also discusses market linkages, risk management, regulatory frameworks, credit availability, and other issues related to aquaculture finance. Legislators, financial institutions, and other stakeholders can create plans to optimize the socioeconomic advantages of aquaculture while fostering inclusive growth by comprehending the relationship between financing for aquaculture and rural development.

Aquaponics is a method of soilless culture that combines aquaculture (raising fish) and hydroponics (growing plants without soil). It’s a sustainable and efficient system where fish waste provides nutrients for plants, and plants filter the water, creating a closed-loop ecosystem. This integration allows for a self-sustaining food production system with reduced water usage and increased resource efficiency.
CONCEPT OF AQUAPONICS – INTEGRATION OF AQUACULTURE AND HYDROPONICS
Aquaponics is a sustainable farming system that combines aquaculture and hydroponics. Aquaculture involves raising fish or other aquatic animals in tanks, while hydroponics is the practice of growing plants without soil, using nutrientrich water instead. Aquaponics merges these two systems into a symbiotic environment where both fish and plants thrive.

With constantly increasing population and need for food security in the present era, an alternate option to safeguard the nutritional well-being of human civilisation is the utmost necessity of the hour. Aquaponics is a system which combines two food-producing systems such as a recirculatory aquaculture system and hydroponics in such a way, that, the waste of one system is utilised in the other system making it a perfect example of the eco friendly model. This system is a soil-less system which can be set up in small vicinity, providing higher outputs. The designs can be changed according to one’s needs, but the main components of the unit should be kept in mind. The main components consist of a fish tank, mechanical filter, biological filter, hydroponics unit along with sump. Although the hydroponics unit are of various kinds but broadly it can be classified into three main types-1. media bed, 2. Nutrient film technique and 3. Deep water culture. If there is a scarcity of land and water or if the quality of soil is poor, usage of aquaponics will be sustainable.

Introduction

Aquaponics is a combination of hydroponics with recirculatory aquaculture system(RAS) as a single production system. Water with fish wastes coming from the fish tank circulates and passes through the filters, the plant grows on beds and water recycles back to the fish tank in an aquaponic system. At f irst solid waste are removed by mechanic filtration followed by biofiltration for removal of dissolved wastes. Ammonia, which is poisonous to fish, is converted to nitrate, a more readily available fertiliser for plants, by bacteria in the biofilter. The plants absorb nitrate and other nutrients when the water passes through plant growing beds, filtering it prior to its arrival in the fish tank.

INTRODUCTION

The expansion of aquaculture, a vital source of income for a large portion of the global population (Salam et al., 2014), has created an unforeseen challenge: increased competition for land use with traditional agriculture. This land squeeze is further intensified by a multitude of factors. Shrinking arable land due to urbanization and desertification, coupled with the relentless growth of the human population, puts immense strain on existing agricultural resources. Man-made environmental pollution from industrial waste and agricultural runoff, along with the far-reaching effects of climate change, add another layer of complexity. These combined pressures necessitate a paradigm shift towards innovative and sustainable agricultural practices.

One promising solution gaining traction is aquaponics, a system designed to cultivate plants and aquatic animals together in a carefully balanced, recirculating environment (Salam et al., 2014). This approach leverages a symbiotic relationship between fish and plants. Fish waste, rich in nitrogenous compounds, acts as a natural fertilizer for the plants growing in the system. These plants, in turn, function as biofilters, removing excess nutrients and purifying the water for the fish. In essence, aquaponics integrates two established agricultural techniques: intensive aquaculture, the practice of raising fish in controlled tank environments, and hydroponics, the cultivation of plants without soil (FAO, 2012). The aquaculture component of aquaponics utilizes eco-friendly, indoor recirculating systems that enable meticulous control over water quality and temperature year-round. This controlled environment offers significant advantages over traditional methods, minimizing dependence on external factors like weather patterns.

6.1 Introduction

Aquaponics represents the relationship between water, aquatic life, bacteria, nutrient dynamics and plants, which grow together in waterways all over the world. Taking cues from nature, aquaponics harnesses the power of bio-integrating these individual components: exchanging the waste by-product from the fish as a food for the bacteria, to be converted into a perfect fertilizer for the plants, to return the water in a clean and safe form to the fish. Just like mother nature does in every aquatic ecosystem.

Aquaponics is basically a combination of aquaculture and hydroponics plant production in a close-loop water system where both vegetables and fish grow simultaneously. This is a closed-loop system and considered as highly efficient, produce more food compared to the traditional farming system. Importantly, it has virtually no waste and with double purpose, aquaponics farming might be an economical viable solution to the low provision of fish and vegetable in some countries. In many cases, aquaponics is advertised as a form of sustainable agriculture because it is water efficient, and has fewer environmental impacts than some forms of aquaculture. That is why, aquaponics is considered as super sustainable and highly efficient because of the healthy symbiotic relationships among the plants, fish and nitrogen-fixing bacteria as illustrated in Fig 6.1. As fish excrete into the water, the water is then pumped up to the plant beds, and bacteria break down the fish excrement so the plants can absorb it.

Aquaponics farming is quite different than hydroponics farming. As discussed in previous chapter, hydroponics is the process of growing plants in a soilless medium where nutrients are added to the water for the plants to absorb. Such systems are not as sustainable and viable as aquaponics because they require the addition of other supplemental nutrients to get desired plants growth. The quality of water decline with time and require proper disposal otherwise, it will contaminate water streams and other water sources. On the other hand, aquaponics incorporates fish to provide the natural fertilizers and nutrients plants need. This simple addition, eliminates the need to add “food” for plants. Best of all, aquaponics has a built in self-cleaning and filtration system that returns clean water to the fish. Aquaponics farming system can be more productive and economically feasible where land and water are limited. No doubt, aquaponics is complicated and requires considerable start-up costs. The production of fish and vegetables is the most visible output of aquaponics farming units. It is essential to understand that aquaponics is the management of a complete ecosystem that includes three major groups of organisms: fish, plants and bacteria.

Providing appropriate nutrition is vital for ensuring the overall well-being, growth, vibrant coloration, and reproductive success of aquarium fish. Feeding isn’t merely a daily habit—it’s a critical biological responsibility that requires an understanding of each species’ dietary preferences, feeding habits, and digestive capabilities.
Fish are generally classified as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, or detritivores, with each type requiring specific nutritional sources. Commercially available foods come in multiple forms, including flakes, pellets, wafers, granules, and options like frozen or live items such as brine shrimp, daphnia, and bloodworms. These formulated diets typically meet the nutritional needs of most fish, but additional supplements can improve growth and support breeding efforts.
It’s important to regulate how much and how often fish are fed. Overfeeding can result in excess waste, degraded water quality, and increased disease risk, while underfeeding may inhibit growth and compromise immune function. Generally, feeding fish once or twice daily with only what they can eat in 2–3 minutes is sufficient.
Special care should be taken when feeding fry, breeding fish, bottom feeders, or sensitive species. Additives like vitamins, probiotics, and natural pigments such as spirulina and carotenoids can enhance health and appearance. Feeding time also provides a chance to monitor fish behavior—eagerness to eat usually reflects good health, while disinterest may be an early sign of illness or stress.

Providing appropriate nutrition is vital for ensuring the overall well-being, growth, vibrant coloration, and reproductive success of aquarium fish. Feeding isn’t merely a daily habit—it’s a critical biological responsibility that requires an understanding of each species’ dietary preferences, feeding habits, and digestive capabilities.
Fish are generally classified as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, or detritivores, with each type requiring specific nutritional sources. Commercially available foods come in multiple forms, including flakes, pellets, wafers, granules, and options like frozen or live items such as brine shrimp, daphnia, and bloodworms. These formulated diets typically meet the nutritional needs of most fish, but additional supplements can improve growth and support breeding efforts.
It’s important to regulate how much and how often fish are fed. Overfeeding can result in excess waste, degraded water quality, and increased disease risk, while underfeeding may inhibit growth and compromise immune function. Generally, feeding fish once or twice daily with only what they can eat in 2–3 minutes is sufficient.
Special care should be taken when feeding fry, breeding fish, bottom feeders, or sensitive species. Additives like vitamins, probiotics, and natural pigments such as spirulina and carotenoids can enhance health and appearance. Feeding time also provides a chance to monitor fish behavior—eagerness to eat usually reflects good health, while disinterest may be an early sign of illness or stress.

1. The word aquarium for the first time was used by ..........

 a) Philip Henry Gosse   b) Anne Thynne

 c) Philip Rottz   d) Britz Carles

 2. Who built the first stable marine aquarium in 1846?

 a) P.H.Gosse       b) Philip Rottz

  c) Britz Carles      d) Anne Thynne

 3. In 1853,the first large public aquarium was opened in .........

  a) Roman empire         b) London zoo

    c) Victoria era       d) None of these

4. Taraporewala aquarium came into existence in .........

 a) Year 1951       b) Year1945

   c) Year 1974        d) Year 1981

Aquarium hardscaping is the craft of arranging rocks, driftwood, and other structural elements to create a natural-looking and visually appealing underwater environment. This design process goes beyond aesthetics—it’s about crafting a balanced habitat that mimics nature and supports aquatic life. Aquarium plants and hardscape form the foundation of aquascaping. While plants add color, texture, and movement, they also play essential ecological roles by producing oxygen, absorbing nutrients, stabilizing water conditions, and offering shelter and breeding sites. Whether it’s low-growing carpets like
Hemianthus callitrichoides or tall background plants like Vallisneria, aquatic flora turns a simple tank into a dynamic ecosystem.
Hardscaping uses inanimate materials—rocks, driftwood, and decorative structures—to simulate riverbeds, forests, or mountain-like terrains. It shapes the aquascape’s layout, provides hiding spots, and defines territories, helping to reduce stress among fish.
A successful aquascape depends on harmony between plants and hardscape. Selections should be based on tank dimensions, lighting, water chemistry, and the needs of the species being kept. Materials must be safe, stable, and non-toxic. Knowing how plants grow—whether rooted or floating—and how they interact with their surroundings is vital to achieving a sustainable, beautiful aquarium.
IMPORTANCE OF AQUATIC PLANTS IN OXYGENATION
AND AESTHETICS
Aquatic plants are essential components of an aquarium, offering both ecological and visual benefits. Functionally, they improve water quality by producing oxygen and removing excess nutrients such as nitrates and carbon dioxide. Aesthetically, these plants create a more natural and appealing underwater environment, enhancing the overall visual experience of the aquarium.

The aquarium industry represents a dynamic and growing field with broad opportunities for entrepreneurship, employment, and export. This sector encompasses a wide range of activities, including ornamental fish breeding, aquatic plant cultivation, aquarium equipment production, retail sales, and the management of public aquariums. Rising interest in aquarium keeping for leisure, home décor, and educational purposes has fueled domestic and international demand for ornamental fish and related products.
Small-scale fish breeding of species such as guppies, mollies, angelfish, and goldfish offers a practical business model that requires limited space and investment. Success in this field hinges on sound knowledge of fish biology, breeding techniques, nutrition, and water quality management. Recognized as a sunrise sector in India, ornamental fisheries benefit from supportive policies under initiatives like the National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB) and the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), which provide training, financial aid, and market connectivity. Entrepreneurs can also diversify into producing aquarium accessories, feed, medicines, and aquascaping services.
With proper training, regulatory compliance, and a strategic market approach, aquarium entrepreneurship can serve as a profitable livelihood or a supplementary income stream.
ORNAMENTAL FISH BREEDING IN AQUARIA
Ornamental fish breeding within aquariums involves raising visually appealing species under controlled aquatic settings. This activity caters to both enthusiasts and small-scale entrepreneurs, offering potential income through the sale of fish and associated products.

Abstract
Mangroves are vital ecosystems that maintain biodiversity, protect coastal areas, and sequester carbon. However, unsustainable aquaculture techniques, notably shrimp farming, are under considerable threat to these essential habitats, contributing to widespread mangrove destruction. The consequent environmental damage highlights the critical need for sustainable aquaculture practices. Aquasilviculture, or silvofishery, is a novel concept that combines aquaculture and mangrove protection. This approach combines shrimp or fish farming with mangrove planting and management, which promotes ecological restoration while preserving aquaculture productivity. Mangroves serve as natural filters, improving water quality by absorbing organic and chemical contaminants, while their organic content enriches pond habitats and promotes the growth of aquatic animals. Successful aquasilviculture schemes, such as Indonesia’s empang parit system and integrated mangrove-aquaculture farms in Vietnam and Bangladesh, illustrate the ability to resolve economic and environmental goals. These approaches increase aquaculture yields, protect biodiversity, and give socioeconomic advantages to local populations. Despite its potential, aquasilviculture confronts obstacles, including financial and technological impediments to implementation. Supportive policies, capacity building, and research are critical for expanding this approach.
Keywords: Silvofishery, Juvenile fisheries, Mangrove-shrimp aquaculture, Global warming and Blue carbon

1. In GAS normal adaption done on 3 stages.

2. In GAS alarm reaction is an physical response.

3. Resistance stage adaptation achieved under homeostasis.

4. In exaust unable to achieved homeostasis.

5. Study of disease and their causative agent is called as pathology.

6. Aeromonas salmonicida is an obligate pathogen.

7. Aeromonas hydrophilia is an opportunistic pathogen.

8. Inflammation occur due to stress.

9. 5 signs in inflammation are calor, ruber, tumour, dolore, et function leaso.

10. Inflammation response will occur following the release of pharma-codynamic amine.

1. Meteorology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the atmosphere.

2. The scientific study of the interactions between living organisms and their atmospheric environment is called as Biometeorology.

3. 75% of the mass of atmosphere is in the troposphere.

4. The ozone layer present in stratosphere.

5. Exosphere gradually merges into interplanetary space.

6. The concentration of ozone occurs between 20 and 50 Km with the maximum around 25 km which is referred as ozonosphere.

7. Chromospheres - the layer which has the chemical activity predominant between 20 and 100 km.

8. Atmospheric composition varies above 80-100 km which is called as Heterosphere.

9. Heliosphere Molecular oxygen is seen been between 200 and 1000 km.

10. Ionosphere above 10000 km, hydrogen atoms are in an ionized state.

INTRODUCTION

India is rich in biodiversity and possesses about 108276 species of insects. Indian subcontinent is one of the mega biodiversity countries of the world occupying ninth position in terms of freshwater mega biodiversity (Mittermeier et al., 1997) comprising 30 order (Dijkstra et al. 2013). Inland wetlands of India serve as the habitat for more than 500 species of aquatic insects which are represented predominantly by Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Odonata (dragonflies) and Trichoptera (caddisflies), (Subramanian and Sivaramakrishnan, 2007). Aquatic insects play important ecological roles in keeping freshwater ecosystems functioning properly (Choudhary and Janak, 2015). The aquatic insects are important part of aquatic ecosystem which play vital role in ecosystem functioning and are known to be representative of structure and function of freshwater ecosystem due to their high abundance, high birthrate with short generation time, large and rapid colonization (Choudhary and Ahi 2015). Aquatic insect function on multiple trophic level such as shredders, collectors, scraper and predators on animal debris, wood and leaf litter reaching the wetland from the surrounding landscape. Nutrients processed by aquatic insects are further degraded into absorbable form by fungal and bacterial action. Plants in the riparian zone absorb this nutrient soup transported through the wetlands. In addition to this significant ecosystem function, aquatic insects are also a primary source of food for fishes and amphibians (Tachet et al., 2003 ; Kumar, 2014).They interact in nutrient cycling within lentic and lotic systems and are regarded as an effective bioindicator (Lundquist and Zhu 2018) and serve as an important component of natural foodweb in aquatic ecosystem. However, the aquatic insect fauna of this part in India is inadequately documented. Therefore, present study carried out to delineate the baseline status of aquatic insects of Anandwan lakes at Warora Dist: Chandrapur.

Introduction

Scope and importance

Aquaculture is breeding, rearing and husbandry of aquatic animals such as f ishes, crustaceans and molluscs for food, ornament and sports. It is a husbandry involving special animals, the cold blooded vertebrates and invertebrates, whose physiology, growth, metabolic activities and overall performance depend heavily on ambient aquatic temperature and environment. Therefore, husbandry and the health management of aquatic animals is quite different from that of the other land based warm blooded animals.

Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing food production sectors in the world including India. Three decades ago, few species were cultured in India mainly in inland waters and then aquaculture was contributing less than 10 % of total f ish production in the country. In the last 25 years, there is a rapid growth in aquaculture with annual rate of 7-8% with significant contribution (above 60%)to total fish production today. The number of species cultured today in India including ornamentals is close to 40. Besides, a good number of plant and animal fish food organisms are cultured to support the hatcheries and nurseries in aquaculture. The area under aquaculture is increasing steadily in inland and coastal brackish water while marine water is also being added up for aquaculture slowly and steadily. Very interestingly, non-traditional environment such as manmade saline soils are also explored successfully for aquaculture. Intensification of culture activity with high stocking density artificial feed and fertilizers is another dimension of aquaculture noteworthy. Large scale movement of aquatic animals and their raw or processed products across national and international borders is important from aquaculture production and health point of view. In general, aquaculture package of practices alter the very water in terms of its chemistry and microbial load and has significant negative impact on the health of fish in culture system.

Aquatic plants are recognized as a valuable forage crop, ideally utilized in their fresh state, dried as hay, or preserved as silage. Their suitability and profitability vary depending on the type of livestock being fed. These crops do not occupy arable land and require no investment for cultivation; however, there are costs associated with harvesting. Feeding aquatic plants directly in their natural habitat is infrequently feasible due to factors such as water depth, risks posed by mud and pathogens, and potential contamination of the water by livestock.
1. Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): Water hyacinth is a perennial herb that floats freely on the surface of freshwater, including rivers, lakes, canals and ponds. In India, the dried form of water hyacinth or its ensilage is utilized as feed for cattle, owing to its high protein content. The amino acid composition of water hyacinth renders it an appropriate feed option for pigs as well. Typically, the plant is chopped and fed directly to livestock; however, its palatability is compromised by the presence of oxalate crystals in the leaves, which can cause oral irritation in animals. Additionally, cattle may experience adverse effects such as diarrhea and increased urination when consuming water hyacinth. This issue can be mitigated by supplementing the diet of adult cattle with groundnut and paddy straw alongside water hyacinth. Ensiling is an effective preservation technique that improves the palatability of water hyacinth. Due to its high moisture content, it is advisable to wilt the plant in the shade for 48 hours, or alternatively, prepare silage by mixing it with straw in a 4:1 ratio. The addition of molasses is to enhance the soluble carbohydrate content. The DCP and TDN in the silage are measured at 5.64% and 40.26%, respectively. The nutrient composition of water hyacinth includes 5.80% DM, 18.30% CP, 22.60% CF, 2% EE, 21.10% TA, 9.50% Ca and 6.30% P. The nutritive value of fresh water hyacinth is 7.66% DCP and 43.73% TDN, with oxalic acid content ranging from 2.50% to 3.60%

1. F. produce inky taste.

2. Phenol produce bitter taste.

3. Anaebena produce strong grassy odour.

4. A protozoan dinobryon imparts fishy odour to the water.

5. Phosphorus compound produce wormy smell.

6. H,S produce rotten egg or putrid smell.

7. Humus produce earthy odour.

8. Sewage contain 99% of water & 1% solids.

9. Sewage contain 70% organic & 30% of inorganic in nature.

10. In sewage organic fraction contain 60% of protiens & 20% of carbo-hydrate &10% fat.

Introduction
The Kashmir Valley, located on the northern side of the Indian subcontinent, is renowned for its stunning aquatic habitats, integral to its biodiversity and cultural heritage. The state is endowed with natural water resources Exclusively Distributed by NIPA GENX Electronic Resources and Solution Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi encompassing a total water spread area of about 0.40 lakh hectares (Department of Fisheries, Government of Jammu and Kashmir). These resources exist in the form of fast-flowing cold-water streams, lakes, rivers, marshes, springs, and high-altitude lakes. These waters hold great potential for the development of various types of fisheries, including cold water fisheries, warm water fisheries, sport fisheries, and reservoir fisheries (Department of Fisheries, Government of Jammu and Kashmir). The data outlining the fishery resources of Jammu and Kashmir is presented in (Table 1). The state is blessed with the presence of significant rivers, namely the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, and Ravi (Shukla and Ali, 2018). Indus originates from Lake Mansarovar at an elevation of 5100 meters in the Himalayas and flows diagonally toward the northwest (Ahmad and Rais, 1998). Jhelum, another important river, originates from a spring at Verinag, which lies northeast of Anantnag Town. The river flows through the city of Srinagar and the towns of Sumbal, Sopore, and Baramulla (Raina, 2002). The third major river in the state is the Chenab, which originates from the Himalayas. The lakes of the Kashmir Valley are surrounded by the majestic Himalayan Mountains (Romshoo et al., 2020). These lakes are invaluable natural water bodies housing a diverse gene pool. The valley boasts numerous lakes and wetlands at varying altitudes, categorized as high-altitude lakes (such as Gangabal, Vishan Sar, Kishan Sar, Sheesh Nag, Nilnag, Kauser Nag, etc.) and valley lakes (including Wullar, Dal, Manasbal, Aanchar, Ahansar, Hokersar, Haigam, etc.). The main factors contributing to the degradation of the lakes include indiscriminate cutting of surrounding vegetation, leading to increased silt and nutrient accumulation in the lake. Additionally, the disposal of sewage and domestic waste, along with the excessive use of pesticides and insecticides in the surrounding areas, and agricultural practices utilizing agrochemicals have been identified as significant contributors (Jamal et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2022).

Introduction
The Trans-Himalayan region, often known as the Tibetan Plateau, is a vast region of Central Asia that is covered with high altitude topography. This enormous and untamed terrain, with its lofty peaks, wide plateaus, and profound valleys, is fundamental in determining the biodiversity and climatic patterns of the surrounding area. Geographically speaking, it includes portions of the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR), Ladakh (India), and Tibet (China), among other places, making it a varied and culturally rich region. The Trans- Himalayan region, with an average height of 4,500 metres (14,800 feet), is sometimes referred to as the "Third Pole" because of its large ice fields and glaciers, which hold enormous amounts of freshwater that are essential for areas downstream. Major rivers like the Indus, Brahmaputra, and Yangtze, which supply water to millions of people in South and East Asia, are fed by these glaciers (Xu et al., 2009). The harsh climatic conditions in the area present special possibilities as well as problems for the local population and fauna. Extreme weather, such as low oxygen levels and frigid temperatures, have prompted the emergence of specialised plants and animals that are suited to these high-altitude environments. For example, the Tibetan Plateau is home to famous animals that flourish in its harsh environment, including the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii) and the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) (Zhao and Guo, 2020). Furthermore, indigenous people have established traditional livelihood practices tailored to the severe circumstances of the Trans- Himalayan area, which carries considerable cultural and spiritual significance for them. These communities depend on the freshwater ecosystems and other natural resources of the area for agriculture, subsistence farming, and cultural activities (Immerzeel and Droogers, 2018).
Geography and Climate of the Trans-Himalayas
The Trans-Himalayan region is a large high-altitude territory situated north of the Greater Himalayas. It is also known as the Tibetan Plateau or the Roof of the World. At an average elevation of 4,500 metres above sea level, this plateau, which spans more than 2.5 million square kilometres, is among the tallest and biggest in the globe (Shi et al., 2019). This region is distinguished by its vast plains, mountain ranges like as the Kunlun, Karakoram, and Pamir, and a complicated network of mountains.

19.1 Introduction

Fish are the most common aquatic vertebrates. Fishes’ primary aquatic adaptation is the presence of gills. They use the oxygen that remains dissolved within the water via their gills. The gills use up to 80% of the oxygen dissolved in the water that passes over them. In addition to the gills, skin, the air bladder and accessory respiratory organs perform gas exchange functions in some fishes.

Fish gills are essentially the same. The gills have been specially modified to use up to 80% of the oxygen dissolved in the water that passes over them. Cyprinus and Carassius gills excrete six to ten times more nitrogenous waste than kidneys.

Introduction
The northernmost territory of the Republic of India, Jammu and Kashmir (latitude 32.28–37.06° and longitude 72.53–80.32°), is situated in the North Temperate Zone, characterized by its temperate-like conditions due to altitudinal variations (220 to 8611 m above mean sea level). The area is rich in biodiversity, with its mountainous terrain creating a beautiful aquatic landscape that is a key feature of its idyllic scenery. The aquatic resources over the valley primarily consist of high-altitude lakes, with wetlands and rivers following. These resources are more prevalent at higher altitudes, with decreasing occurrence at mid and lower altitudes. The freshwater bodies in the valley support a diverse array of macrophytes, phytoplankton, and zooplankton (Shah et al., 2020). Aquatic weeds, or hydrophytes, are found in water bodies worldwide, including those in India. Aquatic weeds are generally described as unwanted plants in the aquatic ecosystem. They occupy various ecological niches within these water bodies and play crucial roles in their ecosystems. India is home to numerous native vascular aquatic plants, as well as various non-native species. These aquatic plants include monocots, dicots, periphyton, and angiosperms. They serve as primary producers in the water bodies, contributing to oxygen production and offering nutritional and medicinal benefits. Despite their importance to the aquatic ecosystem, excessive growth of aquatic weeds can pose significant risks to aquatic organisms, particularly fish diversity in the affected areas.
The aquatic macrophytes of the Kashmir valley have been documented extensively by various authors over time, continuously updating the knowledge of the regional aquatic flora. Based on the recent finding of Ganie et al. (2020), the valley currently hosts 191 species of macrophytes, both aquatic and semiaquatic. These plants belong to 27 families and 80 genera, distributed across 22 dicotyledons, 12 monocotyledons, and 3 pteridophytes. Of these, 92 species are fully aquatic, including free-floating and submerged types, while 99 species are semiaquatic and emergent. In terms of diversity, the highest number of macrophyte species (160) has been reported from Kashmir, followed by 94 species in Jammu and 44 species in Ladakh. The distribution of aquatic weeds in the Kashmir valley includes prominent water bodies such as Dal Lake, Wular Lake, and Manasbal Lake. These lakes support a variety of macrophytes, contributing to the rich biodiversity of the valley. Dal Lake, for instance, is known for its extensive growth of Hydrilla verticillata and Potamogeton natans, while Wular Lake hosts species like Nymphaea alba and Trapa natans. The variety of aquatic plants in these water bodies is crucial for maintaining the ecological balance and health of the aquatic ecosystems of the valley. The diverse array of aquatic weeds in the waterbodies of the valley acts as a "double-edged sword" for the ecosystem. On one hand, these plants provide oxygen, maintain the nutrient cycle, and serve as food for some phytophagous fishes. On the other hand, their overabundance can create mosquito breeding grounds, absorb vital nutrients from the water, release toxic chemicals, and cause dead zones at night by consuming oxygen for respiration. Therefore, it is crucial to control and manage the population of aquatic weeds to ensure the wellbeing and sustainability of the aquatic ecosystem.

• Type of Aquatic weeds

• Different control method

• Advantage and disadvantage of Aquatic weeds.

Aquatic weeds are those unwanted and undesirable plants, which reproduce and grow in fast in water bodies. They are more harmful them beneficial for fish culture. Excessive growth of aquatic vegetation prevents effective utilisation of water and reduces productivity because they utilize the nutrients and also prevent the sunlight to read the deep part of the water body. This excessive growth restrict the living space of fishes, resulting into less production. The decay mass of these pollute weeds prevent the growth of more useful microorganisms. And disturb the food web and food chain and equilibrium of physico-chemical qualities of water. Liberation of toxic substance and waste decomposition of water body is most effective so it is necessary to identify and control them. It has the primary problem of management of Inland fishery cultures.

Aquatic plants grow on extremely wet soil and where water is available to plants in abundance such as ponds lanes river banks etc. or those plants which grows and found in the nearby water body or in water body. These plants are called as aquatic weeds because these are not attend the larger size and act as the weeds which is found in water so these are called as aquatic weeds.

A major portion of the earth’s surface is water. Apart from the oceans, major water bodies on the earth’s surface include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and canals. Plants adapted to these ecosystems form the aquatic species. When they pose a problem to navigation, fisheries and agriculture and also cause health hazards, they are categorised as aquatic weeds. Problems due to aquatic weeds has been reported from different parts of the world. They are common in warm waters. In Florida, it is reported that water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) covers nearly 40,000 hectares of water resources.

Aquatic weeds are those unwanted plants which grow in water and complete at least a part of their life cycle in water. Aquatic weed problem is a global one but more pronounced in tropical and subtropical zones, where warm weather supports profuse growth of aquatic plants. In India, large irrigation projects have been reported to be adversely affected by profusely growing aquatic weeds, that block canals reducing water flow by as much as four-fifths. (Dr. K.T. Chandy,  2010).

1. Harmful Effects of Aquatic Weeds

The important harmful effects of aquatic weeds are as follows
 
    (i)    The aquatic weeds mainly Submerged, immersed, and marginal weeds in and along irrigation canals, ditches, and drainage channels impede water flow, increase evaporation, cause damage to canals and structures and clogs gates, siphons, valves, sprinkler heads, bridge piers, pumps, etc.

An aquifer is a geologic formation, a part of a formation, or a group of formations that will yield water. The quantity of ground water that an aquifer will yield to wells depends partly on its thickness, extent, continuity, and homogeneity, and partly on its physical properties of permeability and porosity.

Groundwater is stored in subsurface void spaces below the water table. The geologic material that stores, transmits, and yields groundwater to wells and springs are called aquifers. The key word here is yields. To be an aquifer, it must store and transmit water at rates fast enough to supply reasonable amounts to wells and springs. Therefore, not all groundwater is stored in an aquifer. Productive aquifers can be comprised of sand and gravel, sandstone, limestone and dolomite, or basalt flows, whereas fractured igneous or metamorphic rocks are only marginal aquifers.

The classifications of aquifer are given below:

A family of 140 genera and over 4,075 species, Araceae are distributed mostly in tropical and some also in temperate regions of the world. About 25 genera and over 140 species have been reported from India, chiefly from western and southern parts. Some larger genera along with the number of their worldover reported species are Anthurium (500), Philodendron (275), Arisaema (150), Amorphophallus (100), Rhaphidophora (100), Pothos (75), Alocasia (70), Monstera (50), Arum (15), Colocasia (8), Acorus (2) and Pistia (1). Colocasia (Colocasia antiquorum) and ‘money plant’ (Pothos aureus) are two famous plants of Araceae.
Anthurium is a beautiful group of tropical aroids. It is cultivated globally for its attractive flowers and foliage. The flowering stalks have a long vase life and add an ethnic beauty to any floral decoration. Anthurium also called as ‘Flamingo flower’ or ‘Boy flower’, both referring to the structure of the spathe, and spadix. ‘Anthra’ is a worldwide knowledge center for the cultivation of anthurium, based on Holland and Germany. ‘Anthura’ performs activities in the field of research and development breeding, tissue culture technology, training and publishing cultivation know- how. ‘Anthura’ collaborates with research stations and test locations in Thailand, China, USA, Japan and India.

Introduction
 
Biodiversity a term to describe variability between organisms or populations of organisms, has different facets depending on the level of diversity considered (Species, population, ecosystem) or the organisms concerned (Barbault, 1992). Biodiversity can be exploited in many ways at scientific levels, the best known and the most ancient no doubt being in taxonomy and systematics, and more recently for studies of population biology, evolution and conservation of ecosystems, or for selection of materials for biotechnology.

ABSTRACT

In Kerala, apart from cultivated sesame species (Sesamum indicum L.) three wild species were identified viz. Sesamum malabaricum, Sesamum mulayanum and Sesamum radiatum. An investigation was carried out to determine the intensity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal colonization in cultivated and wild species of sesame. The percentage of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal infection in roots of different sesame species were found to be variable. The highest percentage of root colonization of arbuscular mycorrhial fungi was found in wild species S. malabaricum, which promotes tolerance to the plant under drought stress conditions.

Introduction

The common mycorrhizal association in most of the plants is the arbuscular type occurring in the majority of agricultural and horticultural crops. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) are formed by non-septate Zygomycetous fungi belonging to the genera Glomus, Gigaspora, Acaulospora, Sclerocystis, Entrophospora, Scutellospora, Archaeospora and Paraglomus in the order Glomales. These fungi are obligate symbionts and have not been cultured on nutrient media. These endophytes are not host specific although evidence is growing that certain endophytes may form preferential association with certain host plants. Several investigations indicted that even in unsterile soils plants do respond to inoculation with efficient strains of arbuscular mycorrhizae. Numerous experiments have been conducted in different parts of the world confirming this growth improvement. The increased growth of mycorrhizal plants is favoured in soils with low to moderate fertility. More specifically, soils favouring mycorrhizal growth stimulation usually have one or more essential nutrients, especially phosphorus, in limiting concentrations.

The mechanism of improved plant growth caused by mycorrhizal inoculation has been investigated by many workers. Greater soil exploration by mycorrhizal roots as means of increasing phosphate uptake is well established. They also improved the uptake other diffusion-limited elements like Zn, Cu, etc. The other beneficial effects are their role in the biological control of root pathogens, biological nitrogen fixation, hormone production and greater ability to withstand water stress (Bagyaraj, 1984).

Abstract

Agroforestry is an intensive land use management system that integrates trees, shrubs, crops, etc. on a landscape level to achieve optimum benefits. Agroforestry is not only concerned with beneficial effects of one component on another, but it also involves the manipulations of negative effects to minimize their influence on the productivity of the overall system. In an agroforestry, trees and crops compete inevitably for light, nutrients, moisture and other resources. The interactions between tree and crop roots can also have an effect on soil organisms, which play an essential role in the functioning and productivity of agroforesty systems. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are one of the most important components of the soil biota in monoculture and agroforestry systems. AM fungi can rehabilitate degraded lands subjected to agroforestry systems and common mycorrhizal network may further enhance the benefits of agroforestry through vertical niche expansion of AMF. However, management practices of agroforestry affect mycorrhization, AMF community composition and diversity of AM fungi. This review focuses on AMF diversity, which plays a significant role in agroforestry systems.

Abstract

Contamination groundwater and soil due to heavy metals (HMs) has aggravated into a threat not only for people inhabiting the polluted areas but also for the vegetation of the region. Relying on the use of obligate symbionts, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in remediation of contaminated sites can be a productive approach. These fungi due to high cation exchange capacity have the ability to adsorb heavy metals (HMs) on fungal tissues; they also possess enzymes responsible for reduction of metals to less toxic forms. In areas with high toxicity of various HMs such as lead, AMF extends its extraradical mycelium (ERM) beyond the depletion zone of plant roots increasing the availability of nutrients such as potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulphur resulting in increased plant growth and yield. Production of phenol and organic acids by the fungus have been reported to increase iron diffusion, that is a co-factor for antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase. AMF sequester HMs in fungal structures and bind them in their chitin cell walls preventing their translocation to aerial plant parts.

Abstract

Soil salinization is an important factor limiting crop production, mainly in the arid and semiarid regions of the world. Nevertheless, plants naturally have evolved several physiological, biochemical and molecular mechanisms to establish and thrive in salt stressed soils. In addition to breeding crops for salt tolerance, recent emphasis is on exploring the possible role of plant-microbe interactions in amelioration of salt stress in plants. It is now well established that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis alleviates the effect of salt stress in plants. Further, available evidence does suggest that AM symbiosis regulates many of the plant’s salt stress alleviation mechanisms. However, the molecular basis for many of these mechanisms is yet to be ascertained. In this chapter, we summarize the current knowledge on the role of AM symbiosis in alleviation of salt stress in crop plants, which now appears to be a promising strategy to improve crop yield in salt stressed soils.

Abstract

Soil is the store house of 1/4^th of the global biodiversity. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi is one of the important group of organism occurring in soil. The beneficial effect of AM fungi in improving plant growth is well documented. Many of the functions performed by AM fungi can provide essential services to human society. These services include nutrient cycling, soil structure, plant growth promotion, resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses and bioregulation of plant development. These services are not only essential to ecosystem function but also a critical resource for the sustainable management of agricultural systems. Recent studies have brought out that both plant biodiversity and ecosystem productivity increases with the increasing number of AM fungi. Thus, it appears that the diversity of AM fungi in soil is a major factor contributing to the maintenance of plant biodiversity and the ecosystem functioning. The role of AM fungi in ecosystem services, plant diversity and land productivity are discussed in this review.