eChapters

Raj Bahadur
    
3.1.    Nitrogen Fixation in Saline Soil
    
3.2.    Legumes and Nitrogen Fixation
    
    3.2.1.    Legumes in Saline Agriculture; Nitrogen Fixation Capabilities
    3.2.2.    Legumes in Saline Agriculture; Salinity Tolerance of Legumes
    3.2.3.    Improvement of Salinity Tolerance of Legumes
    3.2.4.    Legumes of the HALOPH Database
    
3.3.    Perspective for Saline Agriculture
    
3.4.    Impacts of Agriculture and Global Climate Change Terrestrial Biogeochemical Cycle of Nitrogen
    
    3.4.1.    Nitrogen Chemistry and Terrestrial Life
    
3.5.    Nitrogen Fixation
    
    3.5.1.    Decomposition
    3.5.2.    Nitrification
    3.5.3.    Denitrification
    3.5.4.    Bio-geochemical Linkage of Nitrogen and Carbon
    3.5.5.    Soil Organic Matter
    3.5.6.    Perturbations and N and C Biogeochemistry
    3.5.7.    Organic Nitrogen
    3.5.8.    Mineralization
    
3.6.    Factors Influencing Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Legumes
    
    3.6.1.    Temperature
    3.6.2.    Soil Water Status
    3.6.3.    Nitrogen Concentration in the Root Zone
    3.6.4.    Carbon Demand for Fixation
    3.6.5.    Seasonal Regulation of Legume Biological Nitrogen Fixation
    
3.7.    Quantification of Biological Nitrogen Fixation
    
    3.7.1.    Estimation with Empirical Models
    3.7.2.    Potential N Fixation Rate
    3.7.3.    Impact of Soil Temperature
    3.7.4.    Impact of Soil Water Status
    3.7.5.    Effect of Soil Mineral N or Internal Substrate N
    3.7.6.    Influence of Plant Substrate C or C supply
    3.7.7.    Changes in N Fixation with Plant Growth Stage
        
    References

Q.1.    What is the most fundamental assumption to be followed by random variable for using the standard method of parametric statistics or parametric inference ?

    Answer
    
    The most fundamental assumption required to be followed by random varibale for using the parametric statistics to have statistical inference drawn from certain set of data is that the random variables have normal distribution.

Introduction

In livestock production system, it is traditional to feed cereals, cakes and meals in the ration. With increase in human population and urbanization the area under fodder or cereal production cannot be increased. There is a huge gap between demand and supply of all kinds of feeds and fodders. Also, rise in global temperature is threatening food and fodder security as a whole. Climate change affects natural resources (such as water sources, land and pastures), biodiversity and livestock health. This has a direct effect on livestock production and livestock systems and as such it is not desirable for the livelihood of the people especially those residing in hilly region. The situation is acute in developing countries where annual feed deficits and increasing animal populations are major problems.

Non-Probability sampling methods are also known as non-random sampling methods or deliberate sampling. These types of methods are reliant on the researcher’s ability to select members at random. These sampling methods are not fixed or pre-defined selection processes making it difficult for all elements of the population to have equal opportunities to be included in the sample.

Types of non-probability sampling techniques

1. Judgmental or Purposive sampling

This technique involves the purposive selection of units of samples based on the judgement of the researcher. The researcher selects the sample on the basis of his a priori knowledge and experience.

Non-Response

Non response occurs when respondents are not available or do not occur in the survey and refuse to respond by any means. This non response is mainly of two types either item non response or unit non response.

If we are conducting an online survey and mailing a questionnaire to various persons. But sometimes we get a reply for some questions and sometimes not i.e., in case of questions in which income is concerned. In some cases, the mail is ignored due to lack of time. So, if the whole questionnaire is ignored by any means, then it is known as non-response and if some of the questions are ignored due to their fussy nature such type of response is known as a unit non response. Such types of non-response problems are very common in surveys. Whenever we carry out a survey non response always exists because it is almost impossible to get every response from each individual.

The individual chosen for the sample is not ready to participate in the survey is known as non-response. This type of selection bias is unit/item non response.

The basic knowledge of normal physiological values in different animal species is essential for selection of the animal, diagnosis of any abnormality if any and its correction. The chapter provides the normal physiological values viz temperature, pulse, respiration etc in different domestic animals.

Appendix-'H'    :    Do's & Don'ts During Commercial Nuclear Disasters

1. Introduction

King chilli belongs to the genus Capsicum and species chinense, which is world famous for its heat content. King chilli measures 60 to 85 mm (2. 4 to 3. 3 inches) long and 25 to 30 mm (1. 0 to 1. 2 inches) wide with a red, yellow, orange, or chocolate color. The plant came into limelight when it was announced as the hottest chilli in the world in 2006 (Baruah et al., 2014). The people of the North-eastern India use the fruits of King chilli in different food formulations like flavouring curries due to its high-quality fragrance and pungency and also for various medicinal treatments like rheumatism, arthritis, gastritis, ankylosing spondylitis, digestive diseases (Sarwa et al., 2012) and to reduce chronic congestion (Raktim and Changkija, 2009). It is also used as a bird, animal and insect repellent as well as a biochemical pesticide. The extremely hot or burning sensation of chilli is due to the presence of capsaicinoids found only in Capsicum (Hoffman et al., 1983).

In northeastern India, King chilli has been cultivated in a traditional manner since time immemorial and there exists a considerable amount of genetic variability among the landraces (Raktim and Changkija, 2009). The pharmaceutical applications of capsaicinoids are attributed to their analgesic, antiarthritic, anticancer and antioxidant properties. In fact, capsaicin has been at the centre of intense research for elucidating the basis of its pharmacological properties and exploiting the therapeutic potential (Prasad et al., 2005). It has also been reported that capsaicin inhibits the growth of prostate cancer cells (Mori et al., 2006). The antioxidative capacity of chilli is higher than ginger, garlic, mint and onion (Shobana et al., 2000), which may play an important role in the process of chemoprevention (Yu et al., 2002).

Abstract: This chapter reports variations in organic C, total N and P, mineral N and P, and exchangeable K, Ca and Mg, and microbial biomass C in soils in relation to leaf litter and root biomass (0 to 10, 10 to 20 and 20 to 30cm) at two canopy positions viz. under canopy and between canopy of homegarden trees i.e. coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), and clove (Eugenia cariophyllata Thunb) and nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt. Nees) spice trees. It also deals with seasonal variations in pool sizes of mineral N (NH4+-N and NO₃--N), and net N mineralization rate (0-15 cm) in relation to rainfall and temperature under the homegarden trees, and examines how high rainfall (incessant rainfall) influences water filled pore space (WFPS), net nitrification and net ammonification rates, pool sizes of NH4+-N and NO₃--N and microbial biomass C in the soils and conserves nutrients in humid tropical climate. The chapter also describes how high rainfall makes phosphorus available in high regime of iron in the soils; and perennial cover crop like Pueraria separately and together with phosphorus increases soil N mineralization. Organic C, total N, total P, exchangeable NH₄+, NO_3- , exchangeable K, Ca and Mg are higher in the under canopy and between canopy positions of all the homegarden trees than that in open. Rate of mineralization is the highest during the post-wet season and the lowest during the dry season (February to April) under all homegarden trees. High rainfall during the wet season, however, reduces the rate of nitrification under all the trees.

INTRODUCTION

The chemical compounds needed for growth and metabolism in plants are termed as nutrients. Mineral nutrition of fruit plants is a vital soil management practice in an orchard. The nutrients are converted to cellular constituents or used for energy purposes through metabolic process. Broadly the essential plant nutrients may be divided into macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients. Macro nutrients are needed in plants in relatively higher amounts than micronutrients.
 
Macro nutrients: C,H, O, N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg. 
Micro nutrients: Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, B, Cl, Ni.
 
Altogether 17 elements are considered essential for normal growth and production of a plant.While elements like cobalt, sodium and silicon have been established as essential elements for some plant species and not all. C-H-O matrix accounts for over 90% of the dry matter and is usually 20 to 50% of the fresh weight of the whole plant. Chloride is a most unusual nutrient as it is often present in plants in high concentrations yet its essential requirement is very much lower. Chlorine like Na and K plays an important role in osmoticum. The nutritional needs of fruit trees can be assessed through leaf and soil analysis, tree growth and cropping, and past experience.

Agricultural research has been primarily focused to assure food self-sufficiency and security, and little concern on nutritional value “nutritional security” or health promoting qualities of food being produced. Food security has three dimensions, namely: (1) endemic hunger caused by poverty-induced under-nutrition and malnutrition; (2) hidden hunger caused by the deficiency of micronutrients like iron, iodine, zinc and vitamin A in the diet; and (3) transient hunger caused by natural calamities or civilian conflicts. Micronutrient malnutrition is recognized as a massive and rapidly growing public health issue especially among poor people living on an unbalanced diet.
 
Although great progress has been made in reducing the prevalence of hunger, over 805 million people are undernourished in 2012-14, still unable to meet their daily calorie needs for living healthy lives. This number has fallen by 100 million over the last decade (Table: 1 & Table: 2; Source: FAO, 2014). Undernourishment refers to food intake that is insufficient to meet dietary energy requirements for an active and healthy life. About one in nine people go to bed daily on an empty stomach. In cases where food is available, often the quality of the food does not meet micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) needs. More than two billion people continue to suffer from nutritional deficiencies such as vitamin A, iron, zinc and iodine. Despite progress, the number is still high, and marked differences across regions persist. 

Introduction

Until the 1960’s poultry in India remained largely a backyard dual purpose activity for eggs and meat. People from low social order and economically weaker sections in villages and suburbs generally took to poultry keeping primarily to supplement their diet with more nutritious eggs and meet, and secondly to enrich their livelihood. Despite on a small scale, the activity attracted sizeable proportion of population contributing immensely to the egg and meat supply. The Indian society, though largely vegetarian, gradually accepted eggs and meat in their diet. As demand for poultry products increased, small units transformed into larger well organized farms paving way for a poultry products supply network throughout the country.

6.1    Phytochemicals
    
6.2    Health Benefits  and Therapeutic Properties of Banana
    
6.3    Validation of Health and Therapeutic Claims

One Health is defined as “the collaborative effort of multiple disciplines working locally, nationally, and globally to attain optimal health for people, animals and the environment.” The concept of ‘One Health’ dates back to the Greek physician Hippocrates (ca. 460 BCE–a.370) who in his text “On Airs, Waters and Places” stated:

Whoever wishes to investigate medicine properly, should proceed thus: in the first place to consider the seasons of the year, and what effects each of them produces, for they are not all alike, but differ much from themselves in regard to their changes.

ABSTRACT
Biomethanation is the process of generating energy from anaerobic digestion (AD) of organic refuse. This helps reduce dependency on fossil fuels while reducing CO₂ emission. Organically-rich kitchen refuse (KR) generated daily from the households all over the world could be a good candidate to biogasify, though the quantity and quality of biogas depends on the KR proximate. To enhance biogasification, KR is subjected to physical, chemical and/or biological pretreatment. Physical pretreatments include chopping, grinding, ultrasonication and steam explosion, whereas chemical pretreatments could be by an alkali or a base. Biological treatment involves digestion of the organic matters by individual microbe or its consortium, although it takes place naturally. For biological treatment, standardising the substrate and inoculum ratio is essential. Candidate strains must be mutually compatible to formulate a microbial consortium. Bacillius seems to be a potential candidate as it is a facultative anaerobe exhibiting multiple essential enzyme activities (viz., amylase, cellulase and lipase). Maintaining an optimal pH of 7.0 and temperature of 37°C before and during anaerobic digestion is suggested. Other important factors in digestion include organic loading rate, retention time, C/N ratio, volatile fatty acids (VFA) concentration, etc. VFA content is vital as its accumulation during acidogenesis adversely affects the AD by dropping pH values to unfavourable levels. Acetogens convert VFA to acetate, CO₂ and H₂ in acetogenesis, finally converting it to CH4 in methanogenesis. For effective methanation,

Introduction

India is bestowed with wide range of climate and physic-geographical conditions and as such is most suitable for growing various kinds of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, nuts, spices and plantation crops (coconut, cashewnut and cocoa). Its horticulture production has increased significantly over the last two decades and as per the final estimates, by 2013-14, it has increased to about three times (2.87) since 1991-92 and to about twice (1.90) compared to the production in 2001-02. This has placed India among the foremost countries in horticulture production, just next to China. As per National Horticulture Database 2014, during 2013-14, India’s contribution in the world production of fruits & vegetables was 13.6% & 14%, respectively. Total production of fruits during 2013-14 was about 89 million tonnes while that of vegetables was 163 million tonnes.

Inorganic pest management systems using external inputs such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, high yielding varieties have resulted in increased yields in certain areas, but resulted in ecological degradation hence a decrease in productivity. Under organic farming systems, the fundamental components and natural processes of ecosystems, such as soil organism activities, nutrient cycling, and species distribution and competition are used to work directly and indirectly as farm management tools. For example, crops are rotated, planting and harvesting dates are carefully planned, and habitat that supplies resources for beneficial organisms are provided. Soil fertility and crop nutrients are managed through tillage and cultivation practices, crop rotations, cover crops, and supplemented with manure, composts, crop waste material and allowed substances.
 
Bio intensive IPM incorporates ecological and economic factors into agricultural system design and decision making and addresses public concerns about environmental quality and food safety. The benefits of implementing bio intensive IPM can include reduced chemical input costs, reduced on-farm and off-farm environmental impacts, and more effective and sustainable pest management. An ecology-based IPM has the potential of decreasing inputs of fuel, machinery, and synthetic chemicals—all of which are energy intensive and increasingly costly in terms of financial and environmental impact. Such reductions will benefit the grower and society.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we will know how to classify raw data. The purpose of classifying raw data is to bring order in them so that they can be statistically analysed easily. Classification of objects or things saves our valuable time and effort. It is done in a logical manner and similar things are arranged into a group or class.

2.1    Origin
    
2.2    Production
    
2.3    Distribution

2.4    World Scenario