eBook Chapters

Asparagus is an herbaceous perennial that is widely grown in the United States, Germany, Spain, and France, with India contributing only a little amount. For many years, asparagus has been grown. This was a favourite crop of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. It belongs to the Liliaceae family and is thought to have originated in the eastern Mediterranean and further east in the Caucasus Mountains. It’s a monocotyledonous perennial that’s farmed for its edible stems (spears).

Introduction

Mushrooms are very nutritious products that can be generated from lignocellulosic waste materials; and are in rich in crude fibrend protein. In fact, mushrooms also contain low fat, low calories and good vitamins. In addition, many mushrooms possess multi-functional medicinal properties. Edible mushrooms once called the “food of the gods” and still treated as a garnish or delicacy can be taken regularly as part of the human diet or be treated as healthy food or as functional food. The extractable products from medicinal mushrooms, designed to supplement the human diet not as regular food, but as the enhancement of health and fitness, can be classified into the category of dietary supplements/mushroom nutriceuticals (Chang and Buswell, 1996).

According to Indian Philosophy (Bhat, 2012) the physical body is called Annamaya Kosha.A body, when well nourished grows well by absorbing the energies from the food consumed. Fasting is another aspect of traditional food system. It is meant to purify the mind and the body.

Introduction

This is a disease mainly of the respiratory system affecting domestic poultry, wild birds and zoo birds. Systemic aspergillosis affecting visceral organs and other tissues of the bird’s body is also reported. Reports are also available on eye and brain infections.

Assam is surrounded by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh on the North; Nagaland and Manipur on the East; Meghalaya and Mizoram on the South and Bangladesh, Tripura and West Bengal on the West. The total land area of Assam is 78,523 sq. km and it accounts for 2.4% of total geographical area of the country. Demographically, Assam is the most populous state in the North East India. Economically, out of eight North East states, Assam is the most developed one, but compared to other states like Maharastra, Tamilnadu, Gujrat, it lags far behind in almost all economic spheres.

Antibiotics are produced by some true bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi that destroy or inhibit the growth of other microorganisms. Some antibiotics are synthesized or modified in the laboratory; however, their origins are always in living cells.

9.1 Assay of Antibiotics

Soil serves as the major repository of microorganisms some of which produces antibiotics. Four groups of soil microorganisms viz; Streptomyces, Bacillus, Penicillium and Cephalosporium represent three microbial types, namely, actinomycetes, true bacteria and molds respectively.

Following procedure may be applied to isolate antibiotic-producing microorganisms from soil:

Isolation and Purification of Secondary Metabolites

Isolation

The act of isolating something; setting something apart from others.

Purification

The process of making pure, free from anything that debases, pollutes, or contaminates, the process of removing impurities.

Introduction

The characterization of the potential health impact of engineered materials produced through nanotechnology is an emerging issue of considerable discussion and debate. The current focus on nanotoxicity fails to assess the risk in different local environments and populations. People in developing countries may be more prone to adverse effects of nanoparticles because of underlying health conditions and malnutrition. Moreover, genetic susceptibility to toxic effects varies in diverse ethnic groups and geographical areas. The scientific community needs to identify these information gaps before developing regulations and standard methodologies for nanotoxicity assessment.

Need for systematic mapping and hazard zonation is emphasized in this chapter. Though prevention of natural disaster is not possible, its destruction could be minimized through implementation of effective hazard management system. With this motive, the coastal region between Tangapatnam and Ovari, Tamilnadu State has been classified into various categories of vulnerability based on its response to the 26th December 2004 tsunami. Based on the extent of seawater inundation and coastal geomorphic features, we have assessed the tsunami impact and estimated the behavior of the beaches in case of similar havoc in future. This study had shown that the maximum seawater inundation recorded in the study area is 750m in Colachel and the minimum is 100m in Kadiapatanam, Mandakadu and Vaniakudy areas. Chinnamuttom, Kanyakumari, Manakudy, Pallam and Colachel areas are under high risk.

INTRODUCTION

On 26^th December 2004, tectonic disturbances happened near Sumatra Island with an intensity of 9.3 in the Richter scale wrecked havoc on southwest part of India. In addition to inflicting life and infrastructure loss, the resultant tsunami event had also eroded severely the coastal region and modified topography of beach and shallow coastal regions. It did raise the concern of scientists and emergency planners about the impact of larger earthquake and consequent tsunami should there be any recurrence of such event. Despite becoming aware of tsunami hazard, there has been confusion about areas at risk and areas of safety. This chapter is an attempt to assess the vulnerability of part of Tamilnadu coast based on its geomorphological conditions and the impact of recent tsunami. The hazard maps have been generated and are intended for educational purposes, to improve awareness of tsunami hazards and to encourage responsible emergency planning efforts by illustrating the range of possible tsunami events.

Abstract

Higher temperature and altered rainfall patterns accompanied by extreme weather events are being considered indications of climate change. These factors impact vegetation growth in natural forest, open scrub and in agriculture land. Vegetation index based on satellite data was used to analyse agricultural vulnerability in India to understand impact of rainfall variability. Time-series Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data products obtained from AVHRR (1982 to 2006) and MODIS (2000-2011) were analyzed to assess spatial and temporal variability. Coefficient of variation of maximum NDVI was assessed for the study period and results were corroborated with Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) instead of actual rainfall. Resolution of AVHRR time-series data facilitated study at regional-scale while MODIS datasets with 250m pixel resolution helped in identifying vulnerability at district-level. Study indicated that over 241 Mha areas in the country may not be vulnerable to rainfall variability induced climate change while over 81.3 Mha in arid, semi-arid and dry sub- humid regions may be vulnerable. Study indicated that over 12.1 and 1.81 Mha of Kharif cropland would be mildly and severally vulnerable while 6.86 and 0.5 Mha of Rabi cropland may be adversely affected in a similar manner. Study indicated that length of cropping season was decreasing due to delay in start of season. The paper also presents analysis of variations in SPI and resultant NDVI in typical drought and flood years in the country.

Keywords: MODIS, AVHRR, NDVI, Rainf ed Agricul ture, Vulnerability, Climate Change

Abstract

The paper deals with taxonomy, ethnobotany and threat status of lesser known liana species Hodgsonia heteroclita (Roxb.) Hook.f. & Thomson. The local people use in terms of foods and rites and its role in ecosystem have been reported. Local people used the seeds of liana as food because of high nutritive value. Threat assessment has been following IUCN version 3.1 to evaluate the threat status of the species in Sikkim Himalaya. Out of the five criteria, data on two criteria could be collected and was used to evaluate the threat category of the species. The criteria used for threat assessment were (a) reduction in population and (b) geographical range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) or B2 (area of occupancy) or both. Considering the population status and geographical range of the species, it has been classified as “Least Concern” (A1acd; B2ab(ii,iv)).

Introduction 
SDG 3 emphasizes good health and well-being for people globally. In this chapter, we will focuses on the health and well-being of the Indigenous Khasi Tribe living in Meghalaya, India. The Khasi Tribe comprises 7 sub-tribes, commonly known as ‘Seven Huts’ or ‘HynniewTrep, HyniewSkum’ in the Khasi language. The 7 sub tribes are Khynriam, Pnar, Bhoi, War, Maram, Lyngngam and Dikko. Although the culture, tradition, and beliefs are shared among all subtribes, earning them the common name Khasi Tribe, there are slight differences in terms of topography. Some sub-tribes live in sloping or steep mountainous areas, engaging primarily in forestry and horticulture, while others reside in plain areas, where they cultivate agricultural crops. As an indigenous group, the Khasi community follows certain beliefs and practices related to health and well-being. The Khasi tribe is a matrilineal society where women hold great responsibility at home and in the community. Some researchers have acknowledged that the Khasi tribe is one of the tribes in India with a better status in terms of literacy rates and nutritional status. (D Agrahar- Murugkar, 2004). Approximately 83% of the Khasi tribe are agrarian. The main food items that boost their immune system and make them strong and healthy include rice, dal, potato, tomato, bamboo shoot, pumpkin, green vegetables, citrus fruits, and meat (beef, pork, fish, eggs, and dry fish), which they cook in their own indigenous style. The majority of them are non-vegetarian. A common stimulant is betel nut, which has been used since ancient times as a social mediator to connect with others and form friendships. The Khasi people are hardworking; enjoy games and sports, and traditional music. In terms of social well-being, the Khasi tribe has a strong sense of “we feeling”, supporting one another, following ethical and moral instincts, and respecting one another. They believe in the spirits of Mother Nature (ki blei, ki basa). To maintain strong bonding and enhance Khasi Tribe sentiments, various festivals are celebrated every year, such as Shad Suk Mynsiem, Shad Nongkrem, Seng Kut Snem, Pom Blang, and Beh Diengkhlam. They also pay homage to freedom fighters who have died for the Khasi land, such as Tirot Sing, Kiang Nongbah, and Phan Nonglait. Following the legacy of these freedom fighters, various leaders are heading civil groups that monitor the performance of government administration and other welfare states for common social well-being.

Concept: It’s a natural process that modifies the cytology, physiology, biochemistry, and physical characteristics of seeds. These modifications lower viability and ultimately result in the seed’s death. A decline in the proportion of germination indicates degradation, and weak seedlings are produced by seeds that do germinate. The factors that impact the ability of seed to be stored include the seed’s quality at the time of storage, its pre-storage history (environmental factors during pre- and post-harvest stages), its moisture content or ambient relative humidity, the temperature of the storage environment, the amount of time the seed is stored, and biotic agents. Seed will inevitably get damaged when being stored (Balesevic-Tubic et al., 2005). The quality of the seed at the time of storage, its pre-storage history (environmental factors during pre and post-harvest stages), its moisture content or ambient relative humidity, the temperature of the storage environment, the length of time the seed is stored, and biotic agents are factors that affect the seed’s ability to be stored. Different physical changes can happen to seed during storage because of factors like temperature, moisture content, and length of storage. The viability and vigor of the seeds may be impacted by these modifications.

INTRODUCTION

Heterotrophic organisms, such as zooplankton, use phytoplankton as food, regenerating nutrients through metabolic processes and transferring energy to higher trophic levels. Zooplankton are involved in the conversion of waste matter into animal food that may be consumed, in addition to helping to shift food from the primary to the secondary level. These species act as a bridge in the food chain, carrying energy from the primary producers, planktonic algae, to the larger predatory invertebrates and fish that eat them (Kumari et al., 2008). Macróplankton (200–2000 μm), microplankton (20–200 μm), nanoplankton (2–20 μm), picoplankton (0.2-2 μm), and femtoplankton (0.02 0.2 μm) are the different sizes of plankton (Kumar et al., 2023).

The sensitivity of zooplankton to alterations in aquatic environments is significant. Differences in species composition, abundance, and distribution of body size can be used to identify the consequences of environmental disturbances(Joshi & Joshi, 2011). A number of variables, including temperature, sunlight, ocean currents, and nutrition availability, affect plankton populations. They are vital to ecosystems because they support carbon cycling, global biodiversity, and the general health of the oceans (Cottenie et al., 2001). An evaluation of the pollution state heavily depends on the interaction between phytoplankton diversity and environmental conditions. The diversity of algae found in the Chlorophyceae family is a key sign of the quality of the water. The differences in water quality can be attributed to a combination of natural and human-caused factors. Owing to extensive human activity, anthropogenic inputs from various sources are typically the main variables influencing the water quality of the majority of rivers, lakes, estuaries, and seas, particularly those that are next to densely populated areas(Jeyaraj et al., 2016). Living things, including plants, plankton, animals, and bacteria, are known as bioindicators, and they are used to monitor the state of the environment's natural ecosystem. They are known across the world as aquatic pollution indicator species. Every organic entity in a biological system gives information about the state of its surroundings. For example, plankton responds quickly to changes in the environment and is a valuable biomarker for determining the quality of water as well as a sign of pollution. Plankton is the best indicator of the health of aquatic flora and serves as an early warning system(Wadjikar et al., 2017). An ecosystem that is in balance is one in which beneficial interactions occur between the environment and living organisms. Since water quality is essential to maintaining an environment in balance, it is evident that it plays a crucial role in this relationship(Jeyaraj et al., 2016).

Introduction

Climate change and human activities have emerged as significant factors affecting water resources in diverse regions (Kumar et al. 2022; Haddeland et al. 2014). The escalation in human water consumption for domestic and industrial purposes enhanced by the impacts of climate change has resulted in an overall decline in water availability (Liu et al. 2017; Paul et al. 2021). Rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns directly influence water availability for ecosystems and agriculture potentially leading to greater evapotranspiration rates, intensified rainfall events, and prolonged droughts (Sharannya et al. 2021; Myers et al. 2023). Furthermore, urbanization, deforestation, and agricultural practices alter landscapes, affecting water resources in these areas.

Water shortages pose threats to ecosystem health, and socio-economic development and disrupt agricultural production (Piao et al. 2010). Thus, ensuring sustainable and efficient water usage necessitates accounting for water usage and quantifying it in a changing environment. To comprehensively assess the significance of water resources in the environment, Falkenmark (1995) introduced the concept of blue water (BW) and green water (GW) water, particularly for managing water resources in water-stressed regions. Green water refers to the portion of precipitation that infiltrates into the unsaturated soil layer and is subsequently utilized by plants through transpiration and soil evaporation. In fact, “blue water” represents surface and groundwater flow in rivers, lakes, and aquifers (Abate et al 2024; Sharannya et al. 2021). While numerous studies have investigated the spatial and temporal variation of BW and GW using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) (Feng et al. 2021; Li et al. 2009; Lyu et al. 2019), fewer publications have focused on assessing these variations and uncertainties at the basin scale under varying climate scenarios (Sharma et al. 2023). Hydrological models such as SWAT, serve as valuable tools for simulating past and future hydrological changes in the watersheds using projected climate data. SWAT specifically can simulate both blue and green flows at the watershed scale.

Abstract

Land development in urbanized watersheds poses a potential of increasing storm runoff rates, and therefore increasing the risk of flooding in the downstream areas of a watershed. To investigate the impact of change in land use practices on the watershed hydrology, an hydrological analysis was conducted on Little Kitten Creek watershed located near Manhattan city of Riley county, Kansas, USA. Prior to development, land use types in the watershed included woodland, pasture, and fallow land. However, rapid development has occurred in the watershed in the last ten years. Post development land use practices include commercial development, residential housing, and conservation (woodland and grasslands). Data collected and analyzed included digital elevation model (DEM) of study site, stream network and soil data using ArcGIS (ESRI, 2006) and Arc-Hydro Software (Maidment, 2000). Watershed characteristics such as slopes, channel length, circularity ratios, and drainage density were also computed. The delineated watershed boundary, stream segments and soil data layers were over laid to produce soil maps. Time of concentration (Tc) was determined for the pre and post development conditions in the watershed using seven different methods. The time of concentration values computed using Kerby, Federal Aviation Agency, Kinematic Wave and NRCS (SCS) methods found more reasonable compared to the remaining three methods used.

These computed time of concentration values were observed to be shorter for the post-development condition when compared to the pre-development condition of the watershed. The reduced time of concentration in the post development condition is attributed to increase in percentage of impervious areas due to increased residential development in the watershed; therefore increased rates of runoff in the watershed are expected.

Keywords: Rezoning, Time of Concentration, DEM, Kinematic Wave, Drainage density, Circularity ratio.

Shelf life for Pseudomonas fluorescens (TNAU Pf-1)

Aim: To find out the shelf life of P. fluorescens (TNAU Pf-1) using different carrier materials

Product: The talc based P. fluorescens (TNAU Pf-1) product is used for the study on shelf life.

Selective medium (King’B medium) for Pseudomonads

1. Introduction
Soil hydrothermal regime refers to the distribution and movement of water and heat within the soil. It describes the patterns of soil moisture and temperature variation over time and space. Understanding the hydrothermal regime is important in agriculture, ecology, and engineering, as it affects various soil processes, plant growth, and the behaviour of soil-related structures. The hydrothermal regime of soil is influenced by several factors, including climate, topography, vegetation, soil properties, and land use practices. The movement of water within the soil is driven by precipitation, irrigation, evaporation, and plant uptake (Aggarwal et al., 2009). It can be affected by soil physical properties such as soil texture, structure, porosity, and permeability. Water moves through the soil in response to hydraulic gradients, which are determined by the difference in soil water potential. Soil temperature is influenced by solar radiation, air temperature, and heat fluxes at the soil surface. It varies with depth and can be affected by factors such as soil color, moisture content, vegetation cover, and the thermal properties of the soil. The hydrothermal regime of soil has significant implications for plant growth and development. It affects processes such as seed germination, root growth, nutrient availability, and microbial activity. It also plays a crucial role in soil erosion, groundwater recharge, and the movement of pollutants within the soil profile. Soil’s thermal properties are pivotal in determining the microclimate, which subsequently influences critical stages like seed germination, the growth of seedlings, and the successful established of a crop stand. These properties are vital for modelling the movement of energy, water, and nutrients in soil. Soil thermal regimes are shaped by static properties such as texture and mineralogy and dynamic properties including water content, compaction, organic matter, and porosity. These dynamic properties including water content, compaction, organic matter, and porosity. These dynamic properties, significant to significant change during various farming operations can be adjusted with suitable soil and crop management strategies. Soil moisture content has a significant effect on the soil thermal conductivity. The relationship between soil moisture and thermal conductivity

Abstract

This paper is the result of strong belief that if earth observation and geospatial techniques could be applied to a village to plan its natural resources in sustainable manner, the potential of this technique for common man is harnessed maximum. So analysis of one village natural environment, predicting its impact on humans, identifying certain possible inhabitable conditions due to existing nature & suggesting ways to utilize these conditions for sustainable human's and nature's existence  is the motive behind this work.

Various indicators like range of behavioural, physiological, pathological and carcass-quality parameters can be used to assess the welfare of animals. Whenever, animals undergo painful handling or any other managerial operation, they are likely to face short-term stress. In this condition an increased physiological responses, behavioural responses, injury or mortality are most commonly used; however, some animals which are kept in improper housing with less floor space may cause chronic stress leading to increased disease incidence and suppression of normal development. Therefore, the following techniques can be used to assess the animal welfare at farm level in any given situation.

Introduction

The better quality of life for the Indians who in majority depend on agricultural would be impossible by keeping the rich tradition of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) aside (Das, et al., 2002). According to Farrington and Martin (1988), ITK is based on knowledge, beliefs and customs which are internally consistent and logical to those holding them but at odds with the objectively deduced findings of formal science”. Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) is the knowledge that the indigenous and local community accumulates over generations of living in local environment. It encompasses all forms of knowledge, experience, technologies, know-how, skills, beliefs and practices. These are also termed as “indigenous knowledge”, “people’s knowledge” “traditional knowledge” or “local knowledge” and are limited within a community. It is unique to a given culture, location or society.

Fishermen all over the world use some kind of traditional knowledge. ITK provides valuable insight into sustainable aquaculture, because it passes through considerable adaptation, up gradation and modification over a period of time and carried on from one generation to another as a family technology. Naturally, ITK fits well to a particular environment rather than modern technological knowledge. This knowledge has been developed outside the formal education system and refers to the large body of knowledge and skills which includes variety of fish culture practices, when and where to catch, how to process fish with a cost effective methods, and how to maintain their environment in a state of equilibrium. ITK is collective in nature and is often considered the property of the entire community, and does not belong to any single individual within the community.

1. Introduction

Biochar, produced from pyrolytic decomposition of lignocellulosic biomass, is a solid hard product and a unique green material for soil amendments. Its use has been identified in Amazon fertility as ancient indigenous practice. Through ‘pyrolysis’ (heating without oxygen) process (‘pyro’ which means caused by heat whereas ‘lysis’ means dis-integration), there are three types of yields we get: a solid product (biochar), a gaseous product (syngas/ synthesis gas), and a liquid (bio-oil). The solid item, biochar, is applied for soil amendments. It can be used in agricultural, industrial, and environmental as a functional material. Solid char, a common pyrolytic outcome is charcoal, typically used to designate the solid char product that is ignited for fuel, whereas “biochar” designates the unique solid char purposively used as a soil amendment agent. On the other hand, the gaseous and liquid counterparts of pyrolysis have commercial applications like green energy, feedstock raw materials, and precursors (Fig.1).

Abstract

Climate change is the biggest problem of today, resulting in thawing glaciers, changes in crop yield, and disturbances of water resources not only in India but in the entire world. Crop yield were predicted according mid century (2050s) by using IPCC Scenario A2 and studied impact of climate change. Out of 80 districts of Uttar Pradesh the three were selected for the case study areas namely Meerut, Kanpur and Hamirpur. FAO based model ET₀ Calculator 3.1 and Aquacrop 3.1 Plus were used to estimate reference evapotranspiration and crop yields respectively by using two major food crops rice and wheat. Crop yield were estimated the present climatic conditions (2005) and mid-century condition (2050s). According to the comparison of simulation results for present and future scenarios, crop yield of rice and wheat was predicted to increase in the mid- century (2050s). However, food security was predicted to become a threat in future, because the increase in population till the 2050s is projected, and yield was increases in the major food crops. In order to sustain the growing population, there would be required in the future, a large area for growing rice and wheat in comparison to the area presently, to meet the same food availability per capita. Hence, there would be a need to increase the production of the food crops in order to meet the growing demands of food in the study areas.

Keywords: Crop yield, Global warming, Future, Production

ABSTRACT

Assessment of technical and financial feasibility of two resource conservation technologies suitable for rice establishment1. Zero Tillage Machine (ZTM) for direct seeded rice (DSR) and; 2. Paddy transplanter machine (PTM) for mechanical transplanted rice(MTR) in Rohtas district was carried out at the demonstration farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Rohtas during Kharif-2012 and 2013 in a view to reduce the drudgery and cost of cultivation. An eight row self-propelled PTM (Model 2ZT-238-8) and 9 tined National Make ZTM were used for the purpose. Technical performance of these resource conservation technologies was found satisfactory. The field capacity, field efficiency, fuel consumption and cost of establishment of rice by these technologies were evaluated for the purpose. For the assessment of financial feasibility; benefit-cost ratio, internal rate of return, pay-back period and net present worth of these technologies were evaluated and demonstrated to rural youths for their quick adoption and get rid of labour-shortage and delayed transplanting of rice crop and hence saving of significant loss of Rabi crops that happens due to delayed harvesting of rice crop.

Introduction

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L) is one of the major starchy tuber vegetable crops of the world. It is a unique crop which can supplement the food needs of the country in a substantial manner. Today, potato is the need of life or poor man’s food in many countries including India. Potato production in India has made tremendous progress only with the development of new technologies in different fields of agriculture. It has been observed that the farmers are not adopting recommended practices and consequently not realizing the potential yield of potato. To understand the problems of farmers in the adoption of complete recommended farm practices, researchers as well as extension workers should come out with some concrete findings and suggestions, which can solve these problems. It has been seen that a large number of techniques and practices do not reach the farmer’s fields and those carried to the farmers get considerably distorted or often adopted partially with the result that farmers do not get the potential yield.

ABSTRACT

Grape is a commercially cultivated fruit crop in India. As a result of large-scale introduction, the origin and authenticity of many grape varieties is unclear and the subject of some controversy. Many of the varieties were mixed up and now have led to confusion regarding their correct identification. To explore the genetic relationships between different grape varieties and to analyze their diversity, molecular marker technique has proved to be useful. In the present study, 34 grape varieties have been characterized using Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers. Out of 93 ISSR primers screened initially, 11-showed good polymorphism. Total 174 bands were obtained, out of which 145 were polymorphic. The similarity indices were calculated using DICE coefficient and NTSYS Pc 2.1 software.

Cluster analysis resulted in the formation of two main clusters. One, of the varieties belonging to Vitis vinifera and other of V. labrusca. Varieties belonging to V. vinifera appeared more diverse by forming distinct sub-clusters based on their colour, flavour and seeds. Out of 34 varieties screened, 10 varieties are grouped in white berries cluster and 15 in coloured (red /black) berries cluster. Three white varieties- Italia, Queen of Vineyard and Thompson seedless are grouped into cluster of coloured varieties. The cluster of labrusca varieties showed homogeneity and had five varieties except Dakh, which belongs to vinifera. It may be wrong introduction. Concord separates initially from all other varieties. Incidentally, Concord is a pure selection from V. labrusca, while varieties like Bangalore blue, Black Muscat, Catawba and Muzzafar Nagar in labrusca group may be the hybrids of labrusca x vinifera. The current study thus revealed that genetic relationship among grape cultivars could be assessed using ISSR markers.

ABSTRACT

DNA based molecular marker technologies have been used extensively to study the genetic relationships and to develop markers for identification of cultivars/varieties in various crops. The present study is an attempt to assess the variability and relatedness among 49 varieties/ accessions of black pepper (Piper nigrum L) based on the data generated by both RAPD and AFLP analyses. The similarity matrix was subjected to cluster analysis and dendrogram generated using the software Ntsyspc 2.1. The dendrogram revealed an average similarity of 63 per cent among accessions. Two selections from the variety Karimunda, namely Sreekara and Subhakara, together formed a single cluster with almost 92 per cent similarity. The dissimilarity observed between the varieties Panniyur 1 and Panniyur 3 the progenies of the same parentage, Uthirankotta and Cheriyakanyakadan was only 18 per cent. Based on RAPD analysis 34 varieties were grouped into 5 clusters. Distinct clustering was not observed in AFLP analysis. The results obtained were correlated with the taxonomical interrelationships reported for these varieties. The overall study has thus helped in understanding the relationship among the local cultivars and released varieties.

1. Introduction

Several herbs have been used traditionally to prevent and treat human and animal diseases. Recently, scientific evaluation of plants and preparations of plant origin medications have received more attention. Cassia occidentalis had been reported to be used as antidote of poison, blood purifier, expectorant, anti inflammatory agent and a remedy for the treatment of liver diseases (Ghani, 1920, Kabiruddin, 1951). C occidentalis was tested for antifeedant and insecticidal properties. It was studied successfully for its anti-parasitic (Tona et al., 1999), hepatoprotective activity (Jafri et al., 1999). Stimulation of the immune system is highly desirable for the treatment of immunodeficiency and infectious diseases. The  anti-inflammatory and hepato protective effects of C occidentalis may relate to an influence of plant compounds on immunocompetent cells. The present study was undertaken to find out the effect of methanolic extract of C occidentalis leaves on the humoral immune response in rabbits.

Introduction

Research and development (R&D) is one of the main components to tackle the problems persisting or likely to take place in future. Priority areas of research are depending upon the overall situation and requirements of the problem under consideration. Under these broad areas, topic of interest for research may be varying at different geographical level from household to nation or global. If it is addressing vast geographical area like states, nations, regions and/or global, there may be many individuals/groups/institutions are working over similar type of problems. With the growing communication facilities and rising fund requirements, collaborative research programmes emerged to provide effective and economic solution to the problem with respect to time, money and manpower etc. Earlier, it was limited to high priority areas like defense and long run planning of the nations or kingdom at nation or state level. Declining environmental conditions and biological diversity became global concern in seventh decade of twentieth century. To tackle this problem, The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm) resolved to establish the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1972. Further, to speed up the progress, global community through world leaders had identified two burning priority areas during conference United Nations (U N) Environmental Programme Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, well known as Earth Summit. One of those two priority areas was Biological Diversity. To address the issues at global levels, The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed by party nations, which was later ratified by the 187 countries. India is also one of the signatory nations and need to fulfill some time bound commitments. Moreover, later, importance of biodiversity and germplasm has been underlined by different forum at regional and global level for its present and future values in the life of human kind. Countries and various geographical regions are now becoming more and more aware about its judicious exploitation, conservation and sustained higher output over period of time.

Introduction

Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, is such an aquatic plant that needs hardly any introduction. This aquatic plant is considered as nuisance weed found floating freely on fresh water bodies, proliferates aggressively and therefore, spreads like wild fire. It can infest all types of water bodies, chokes waterways, canals, channels, dams, and thus damages potential water resources. Evidently, two plants produces 300 offspring within 23 days only and under ideal environment, 10 plants can multiply to 6 lakh and may cover an acre area within a period

Introduction

Aquarium fish keeping has become increasingly popular in industrialized countries and has been rated as the second biggest hobby and the most popular type of pet (Oliver, 2001). The National Pet Owners Survey 2007-08 revealed that 142 million freshwater and 9.6 million salt water fish were kept as pet in the USA alone (APPMA, 2008). The growing interest in aquarium fish has resulted in steady increase in aquarium fish trade globally. Today, with a turn over of US $ 9.0 billion a year and an annual growth of 8.0%, production of ornamental fish is an important business activity as well as one of the most popular hobbies in the world (Yanar et al., 2008).

Introduction

Tumaria wetland (29° 18' N & 78° 57'E) is a manmade wetland near Corbett Tiger Reserve, Nainital district, Uttarakhand (Figure 1). It was constructed in the year 1961 and has an average depth of 3.1 m. It was mainly used for irrigation, fish production and has been a favorite place for several migratory birds during winter season (Bhattacharjee and Bargali, 2013; Bhattacharjee,2014). Tumaria bears a humid subtropical climate; emprises hot and dry summer which commences from early October to the mid of June. The area experience wet season from the mid of June to early October and then feels the cold winter. The reservoir catchment area is 284.16 sq. km and its north area is covered with thick, reserved forest of Jim Corbett National Park (Figure 2). The infestation of Salvinia weed is one of the major problems being faced by this wetland.

The exotic free-floating weed, Giant Salvinia (Salvinia molesta Mitchell), belongs to Salviniaceae family and is a native of south-eastern Brazil (Forno, 1983). It is commonly known as water fern, water weed, Kariba weed or water spangle and African payal in India (Jones, 1987). During the past 50 years, it has widely extended throughout the world and has infester the areas of Australia, New Zealand, Africa, southern USA, the Indian subcontinent, south-east Asia and some Pacific islands (Thomas and Room, 1986) (Figure 3). In India, it was f irst established in the state of Kerala since early 1970s (Cook, 1976; Thomas, 1976 and 1979). This aquatic weed has invaded in various aquatic habitats, such as lakes, wetland, rivers, reservoirs and paddy fields.

3.1 Land Use and Land Cover Analysis

Concept and Importance: Understanding the significance of land use and land cover analysis in watershed management for assessing spatial patterns of human activities and natural ecosystems.

Land use and land cover analysis is a fundamental tool in watershed management, providing valuable insights into the spatial patterns of human activities and natural ecosystems within watersheds. Here's an exploration of the concept and importance of land use and land cover analysis in watershed management:

a. Concept: Land use refers to the human activities and practices conducted on the land, including residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural, recreational, and conservation activities. Land cover, on the other hand, refers to the physical and biological features of the land surface, including vegetation, water bodies, bare soil, impervious surfaces, and artificial structures. Land use and land cover analysis involves mapping, classifying, and quantifying the spatial distribution and temporal changes of different land use and land cover types within watersheds using remote sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and field surveys.

b. Significance: Land use and land cover analysis is essential for watershed management due to its significance in understanding the interactions between human activities and natural processes, assessing environmental impacts, and guiding land management decisions. Key reasons for the importance of land use and land cover analysis in watershed management include:

Introduction

Agriculture has been undoubtedly the major source of livelihood in the developing nations like India. Livelihood is defined as adequate stock and f low of food and cash with an individual or a family to meet its basic needs (Girish et al., 2020). It encompasses the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required for a means of living (Chambers and Conway, 1992). Livelihoods are considered secure when households have secure ownership or access to resources and income earning activities, including reserves and assets, to offset risks, ease shocks and meet contingencies (Chambers, 1989). The livelihood security is a complex concept that is location specific, subjective and dynamic (Hogger and Ruedi, 2004). It comprises of many indicators like food, educational, financial, health, culturaland social securities. Constraints like practices of traditional methods of cultivation, lack of access to modern technology, low productivity of crops, in-adequate capital formation and low investment, widespread illiteracy among farmers, etc., have become a major threat to the educational, food, economic and social securities, thus ultimately affecting the livelihood status of farming households in the country (Hatai and Sen, 2008). Since, a large fraction of farmers in the country lives in the rural areas, they have no proper knowledge regarding the usage of modern farming techniques. Often their low level of education and lack of communication has resulted into a lack of general awareness regarding the modern research and inventions on agriculture (Makal et al., 2017). In such scenario, farmers’ trainings play important role which helps the farmers in understanding the application of latest agricultural technologies in daily farming activities. It improves the knowledge of the trainees about the improved farm practices (Srinivas and Sailaja, 2013). The major players providing these extension services in public sector are Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and ICT-led extension interventions by Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare (DAC&FW), Government of India. Many state universities through their KVKs, have been imparting need-based trainings to the farmers in their routine activities as well as sponsored by various departments/agencies. In last few decades, KVKs have increasingly become associated with grass root development (Saha, 2013).

Crops are grown with the primary aim of maximizing the profit for the cultivators. To achieve this goal, high yielding cultivars and suitable agricultural practices are selected. But due consideration is not given for the levels of susceptibility of the cultivars and some of the agricultural practices may enhance the chances of disease incidence and consequent losses. Hence, it becomes obligatory to determine the effects of crop cultivar and agricultural practices on the extent of disease incidence and to assess losses caused by microbial pathogens in different crops in an agroecosystem. Crop losses reflect the effects of various factors such as use of disease resistant cultivars, application of chemicals, biocontrol agents and preventive measures to reduce inoculum levels, introduction of new diseases and restriction of disease spread. Assessment of crop losses is essential to choose the most effective short- and long-term strategies of disease management. Disease assessment enables the plant pathologists is to gather quantitative information for evaluating disease management strategies, for undertaking surveys of losses and breeding for disease-resistant cultivars.

Semen metabolic activity can be assessed with the help of the following tests:
    
15.1    Incubation test
    
15.2    Methylene Blue Reduction Test
    
15.3    Resazurine Reduction Test
    
15.4    Millovonoo’s Resistance Test (‘r’ test)
    
15.5    Fructolysis Index
    
15.6    Oxygen utilization test
    
15.7     Glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase activity

15.1 Incubation Test

The longevity and viability of spermatozoa during storage is a good index of fertilizing ability of sperm. In this test assessment of motility is carried out over a period time to obtain an idea about the length of time over which acceptable level of motility is maintained in the semen sample. Therefore, this test serves as a mean of determining storage probability within a fairly short period of time.

Introduction

The success of green revolution strategies for raising agricultural productivity and production has depended on the development of crop varieties that are more responsive to increased applications of water, manure, fertilizer, and agrochemical means of protection against pests. For farmers to benefit from this process whereby investing in more inputs can lead to production of more outputs, they had to begin by buying and using improved seeds. The green revolution was clearly seed dependent. The system of rice intensification (SRI) and other agro ecological approaches follow a different strategy, on the other hand. They work with whatever crop varieties the farmer already has or prefers to use (recognizing that it is always most productive to start with whatever genotype is best suited to the farmers’ circumstances and goals). Agro ecological methods are more likely to reduce the use of external input than to increase this as they mobilize and capitalize upon potentials that already within plants and upon the interactions between plants and their biotic and abiotic environments, i.e., mutual influences among plants, other organisms, climate, soil and other inanimate factors (Altieri, 1995; Gliessman, 1998; Uphoff, 2002). This is a very different envisioning of the agricultural domain.

Assessment of nutrient requirements for ruminants is essential in order to maintain good health and optimal production levels in these animals. Ruminants have a unique digestive system that allows them to digest plant-based feed, such as grass and hay, through a process called fermentation. This process produces volatile fatty acids which are then absorbed by the animal and serve as their main source of energy. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the diet provided to ruminants contains enough nutrients to support both their metabolic needs as well as their production demands. This assessment includes factors such as age, weight, stage of lactation or pregnancy, level of activity, and environmental conditions. In addition, the quality and quantity of available forage should also be considered when determining the nutrient requirements of ruminants. Proper assessment can help prevent deficiencies or excesses of certain nutrients which can lead to health issues and decreased productivity in these animals. Ultimately, by accurately assessing the nutrient requirements for ruminants, producers can develop appropriate feeding programs that promote overall well-being and performance in their herds.

Abstract

Food processing involves the transformation of raw animal or plant materials into consumer-ready products, with the objective of stabilizing food products by preventing or reducing negative changes in quality. Without these processes, we would neither be able to store food from time of plenty to time of need nor to transport food over long distances. Food processing has also gained its importance in the wide variety of diet among people throughout the globe and availability of exotic food items at various places. Processing of food items enhance the taste, flavor and aroma of the food thereby increasing the overall chances of its acceptability among the masses. So, it is essential to determine and recognize the database of physical and engineering (aerodynamic and mechanical) properties of these agricultural products because these properties play an important role in designing and developing of specific machines and their operations such as sorting, separating and cleaning, also to determine the optimum in seed metering device in pneumatic planter and precision sowing machine to suite every size of these grains.

Introduction

“Quality” refers to the aesthetic appearance and freshness of fish. It also involves safety aspects such as being free from harmful bacteria, parasites or chemicals. The best quality fish is the one consumed within the first few hours after postmortem. We studied in our previous chapters that in some instances, even very fresh fish in rigor mortis are unsuitable for filleting. So, slightly older fish in post-rigor are more desirable for the processors.

The assessment methods of fish quality are divided into sensory, instrumental, chemical and microbiological. Sensory method is superior and all other methods must correlate with the results of sensory evaluation. So, sensory method must be done more scientifically under controlled conditions without the effects of test environment, personal bias, etc.

4.1. Sensory Methods

Sensory evaluation is defined as the scientific discipline used to evoke, measure, analyze and interpret reactions characteristics of fish, as perceived through the senses of sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. There are few instruments capable of measuring sensory profile viz. Instron for texture, electronic nose for odour, microscopic imaging for structure, etc.

In sensory evaluation, appearance, odour, flavour and texture of fish are evaluated by the human senses. The process involves three steps: (1) detection of a stimulus by the human sense organs, (2) evaluation and interpretation by a mental process; and (3) the response of the assessor to the stimuli. The response of stimuli varies among individuals e.g. some people cannot taste rancid flavour and some have low response to cold-storage flavour.

Abstract

Coastal aquifers are the sources of freshwater which are being over extracted due to increase in population, agriculture and industrial activities. This over exploitation has resulted in decline in groundwater level and intrusion of sea water into the coastal aquifers making it unfit for human utilities. An attempt has been made in the coastal tracts of Pondicherry region using Electrical resistivity imaging. The survey has been attempted in six locations spread thought the study area and the interpretation has been attempted by RES2DINV software. The profile length attempted was between 150 to 300 m with electrode spacings between 5 to 10 m. The apparent resistivity ranges between 0.1 to 1183 & ohm. Sea water intrusion was prominent along the northern parts of the study area and lower resistivity isolated in kirumambakkam has been interpreted as salinity due to the presence of clay minerals. In nallavadu saline intrusion has been identified at shallow depth.

Abstract

Moisture stress is a wide spread problem seriously influencing sesame production, especially in arid regions. The present study was carried out in order to evaluate response of sesame cultivars to moisture stress and determine the best measures to increase and improve the yield of cultivars in stress condition.

Introduction

Ornamental fish is often used as a generic term to describe aquatic animals kept in the aquarium hobby, including fishes, invertebrates such as corals, crustaceans (e.g., crabs, hermit crabs, shrimps), molluses (e.g., snails, clams, scallops), and also live rock. Live rock is a general term for any type of rock encrusted with, and containing within its orifices, a wide variety of marine organisms including algae and colorful sessile invertebrates. Live rock serves as the principal biological and chemical filter in many marine-type tanks, and the encrusted organisms usually provide much of the background coloration in the tank. Ornamental fish culture is fast emerging as a major branch of aquaculture globally. Aquarium keeping is the second largest hobby in the world next to photography and the ornamental fish and aquatic plant industry is fast gaining importance due to its tremendous economic opportunities and prospects. Ornamental fish keeping is a popular hobby in developed countries and is gaining popularity in many developing countries. The growing interest in aquarium fishes has resulted in steady increase in aquarium fish trade, globally. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2006), export earnings from ornamental fish trade is US $ 251 million and more than 60% of the production comes from households of developing countries. The wholesale value of the global ornamental fish trade is estimated to be US $ 14 Billion. More than 2500 species of ornamental fishes are traded and some of 30-35 species of fresh water dominate the market. The trade with an annual growth rate of 8 percent offers a lot of scope for development. India’s share in global ornamental fish trade is negligible and at present the ornamental fish export from India is dominated by the wild caught species. The top exporting country is Singapore, followed by Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Indonesia and India. The largest importer of ornamental fish is USA. Europe and Japan, China and South Africa are the emerging markets of ornamental fish trade. The aesthetic, attractive colour and appearance of the fish appeal to children and aged alike. As the day passed, ornamental fish keeping become an interesting activity for many, in the process, generating income for the unemployed youth and farmers. The concept of entrepreneurship development, through ornamental fish farming is gaining popularity day-by-day.

Bulls are considered as the half of the herd as the genetic contribution of a male almost commensurate with that of a female. The male gamete, following deposition in the female reproductive tract, traverses a long path before it could effect a successful fertilization process. It is the beauty of the nature’s creation that in spite of encountering much of this physical and chemical stress, the male chromatin remains stable until it forms the male pronucleus following fertilization. This amazing feature is endowed by the high level of compaction of the sperm nuclear DNA which in turn is due to the replacement of the sperm nuclear histones by protamines.

Introduction

At the very outset, the varied aspects which govern the agricultural scenario in India have been taken up. Basically, India is a land of diversity and Indian climate defies an easy generalization. It comprises a wide range of weather conditions prevailing across a large geographic scale existing in the midst of varied topography. A systematic analysis reveals that Indian climate can be partitioned into six major climatic subtypes, ranging from deserts in the west, to the alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, to humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. The landform pattern is also found to be widely varying over places. Interestingly, tIndian soils can be divided into six categories, namely, alluvial soils, regular soils, red soils, laterite soils, mountain soils as well as the desert soils. Being a populous country whose sixty percent of the population earns its livelihood on agro-based incomes, directly or indirectly, it is important to review the robustness of the system followed in the actual practice in the Indian scenario towards the process of raising crops which ultimately feed more than hundred crores population. The review reveals that the agricultural production and farm incomes in India are frequently affected by the natural disasters such as droughts, floods, cyclones, storms, landslides as well as the earthquakes, and, indeed, the susceptibility of Indian agriculture to these disasters is compounded by the outbreak of epidemics and man-made disasters such as fire, sale of spurious seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, price crashes etc. As a sequel, the farmers are severely affected through the loss of production of agricultural crops and consequently, the loss of farm income due to occurrence of such events, and it is no denying that the management of or coping with such factors remains beyond the control of the farmers.

Scientists rely on a variety of endocrine, behavioral, autonomic nervous system and immunological end points to measure stress. Unfortunately, none of these measures has proved to be a litmus test for stress. Increased secretion of the adrenal glucocorticoids and cortisol has been found to be associated with stress and investigators frequently cite an increase in circulating cortisol as a proof of stress. Colborn et al., (1991) found that stallions secreted similar amounts of cortisol whether the stallions were restrained, exercised or permitted to mate with a mare. Serum cortisol concentrations are often used to evaluate stress, but due to the marked variability, faecal corticosterone has been used to evaluate stress in cattle (Morrow et al., 2002). Dairy cattle secrets cortisol during restrained and when approached by strangers. So it is difficult to simply use secretion of cortisol or any other hormone to differentiate between non threatening stress and distress. Further, complicating is inter animal variability in stress response. Even among the same breed some cows may produce more cortisol to the same amounts of thermal stressors.

ABSTRACT

A watershed is a topographically delineated area that is drained by a stream system, i.e. the total land area above some point on a stream or river that drains past that point. The watershed is a hydrologic unit that often is used as a physical – biological unit and a social – economic political unit for the planning and management of natural resources. Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques can be used effectively to generate the land use/land cover for evaluating the changes in an area. Conventional methods of runoff measurements are not easy for inaccessible terrain of Tamilnadu. Remote sensing technology can augment the conventional method to a great extent in rainfall-runoff studies. In this study, SCS Curve Number technique modified for Indian condition has been used for generation of CN for an ungauged watershed. A sub watershed of Manimuktha watershed is considered as study area. The daily rainfall data of Virudhachalam rain gauge station is collected and used to predict the daily runoff from the watershed using GIS based Soil Conservation Service -Curve Number (SCS – CN) method (USDA, 1972). Monthly and annual runoff values are obtained from the daily runoff values of the watershed. Base map, Soil map and Land use map of the study area are prepared by using Remote Sensing data and Survey of India (SOI) toposheets. PC Arc/Info GIS software is used for analysis.

Availability of genetic variability and exploitation of this variability are two basic requirements of successful crop breeding programmes. The presence of genetic variation in a character is a must for any improvement in that character. If all the individuals in a population are identical i.e. no variation is there, selection cannot be done, so no improvement will be done. In case of crops, if variation is not present or variation is very small, variations are created through hybridization, mutation, polyploidy etc. Selection is identification and isolation of desirable plants from a variable population. A population consists of large number of heterogenous individuals with different morphological expressions. This variability is contributed by three factors: 1. Genetic constitution of individual, 2. Environmental effect on the individual and 3. Interaction effect between gene and environment. These three factors contribute towards the phenotypic variability among the individuals of the population. Assessment of magnitude of variability present in a crop species is of utmost importance as it provides the evidence for effective selection. Phenotypic variation in a population arises due to genotypic and environmental effects.

Introduction

Agriculture is the main sector of the Odisha economy and contributes approximately 42% to the gross domestic product (GDP) and employs over 80% of the population. Despite its role, agricultural production is constrained by high climate variability where rainfall distribution is extremely uneven and this has negative implications for the livelihoods of people .Drought frequently results in crop failure, while high rainfall intensities result in low infiltration and high runoff causing enhanced soil erosion and land degradation. Land degradation in the form of soil erosion and declining land fertility is a serious challenge to agricultural productivity and economic growth (Lemenih, 2004).Studies indicate that the tribal district of Odisha have experienced high rates of soil erosion and deforestation, resulting in sediment accumulation in downstream reservoirs and rivers.

Abstract

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) played and continue to play pivotal role in better decision making of farmers for plant health management under the climate change scenario. For judicious plant health management by farmers through the use of ICT tools (viz. interactive Kiosk, Mobile Apps, Whatsapp, Webportal), information need and information access network to be assessed. Based on farmers’ information need and network, information delivery tree should be designed in ICT tools. Under this backdrop this research work was carried out among the farmers of Bhagalpur district of Bihar. The sample size was 120. From the study it was noted that the major information needs of the farmers were seed availability, crop disease management, insect pest management, weed management and weather information and pesticide application. Farmers were enthusiastic to improve their knowledge on insect pests and disease identification and management. Specifically, farmers need information on insect pest management of wheat (aphid), maize (stem borer), vegetables (fruit borer), pulses (pod borer) and oilseeds (aphid) and also disease management of wheat (leaf blight and spot blotch disease), maize (Turcicum leaf blight), vegetables (wilt and leaf spot) and pulses (wilt disease). Farmers decision making was positively and significantly correlated with crop disease management(0.196*),insect pest management of crop(0.208*) and weed management(0.239**). Through the Path Analysis it was noted that farmers decision making on disease management was mediated by the variables - Bihar Agricultural University-Kisan Diary, Mobile Apps(Bihar Krishi Apps) and Kisan Salahkar. So, it can be concluded that these much needed information should be provided to the farmers though different ICT tools and extension personnel should be trained to operate these ICT tools for accelerated use of ICT tools by the farmers.