eBook Chapters

Poor Governance

Bad governance refers to how decisions are made in government and business. It is opposite of good leadership. Poor governance entails systemic corruption and a lack of openness and accountability, arbitrary policymaking, and the deception of those who are ruled.

Atuna racemosa subspecies racemosa is shown to be a species with many uses throughout its range from Malaysia to Melanesia. The principle uses described are the seed oil used as anti-inflamatory massage oil and for hair dressing, the seed pulp that is used for caulking and varnishing boats, the wood for house construction, and many parts of the plant as ingredients of local medicines. The medicinal uses of this species deserve further study since it has been shown to have both anti-bacterial and anti-inflamatory action. It is also uncertain whether its distribution over the Pacific is natural or human caused.

Atuna racemosa Rafin. is a widely distributed tree species that ranges from the Malay Peninsula through Malesia, Australasia and to the Pacific islands as far as Fiji, Tonga and Samoa. As with many useful plants, its natural distribution is uncertain because it has been transported around from island to island during the various migrations of the Pacific islanders.

Audio-visual aids refer to devices that enable both visual and auditory sensory inputs, facilitating enhanced learning and retention compared to using these senses separately. As highlighted in the preceding section, the combination of sight and hearing captures 94% of the audience's attention, underscoring the efficacy of audio-visual aids in extension teaching.

Advantages

• Clarity and Conceptual Understanding: Audio-visual aids convey meaning succinctly and clarify ideas effectively.

• Enhancement of Oral Communication: They supplement spoken words by providing visual reinforcement.

• Stimulation of Conceptual Thinking: They provide a tangible basis for conceptual understanding.

• Engagement and Sustained Interest: These aids attract, arouse, and maintain audience interest.

• Enhanced Learning and Retention: They contribute to long-term retention of learning.

• Overcoming Constraints: They overcome limitations of space, time, and distance.

• Continuity of Thought: Motion pictures aid in the development of coherent thought processes.

• Stimulation of Self-Activity: They stimulate audience participation and motivate action.

Audio-visual aids may be defined as any device used to aid in the communication of an idea. An audiovisual product is any audiovisual item such as still photography, motion picture, audio or video tape, slide or film strip, that is prepared singly or in combination to communicate information or to elicit a desired audience response. Even though early aids such as maps and drawings are still in use, advances in the audiovisual field have opened up new methods of presenting these aids, such as videotapes and other equipments which allow more professional and entertaining presentations to be presented.

Such aids assist the teacher in communicating information among the learners leading to change in skills, attitudes, knowledge, understanding and appreciation. These aids stimulates the sensory organs like ears, eyes, etc and facilitates quick understanding of the message by the audience. The effective use of these aids depends upon the skillful and imaginative approach of the teacher. Hence, it is necessary that extension worker should know what type of aids will be more suitable for a particular teaching objective. These aids may be used for both literate as well as illiterate people.

The instructional devices through which the messages can only be heard are known as Audio Aids. The instructional devices through which the message can only be seen are known as Visual Aids. The instructional devices through which the message can both be heard and seen simultaneously are known as audio-visual aids.

“Audio-Visual aids are those instructional devices that may be used by a communicator in order to facilitate better understanding on the parts of learner by involving their many senses, particularly those relating to seeing and hearing”.
As a potential link between research institutions and livestock owners the extension agent must have good skills in effectively communicating with various stakeholders which include policy makers, researchers, input suppliers, market agents, credit institutions etc.

EXTENSION TOOLS /AIDS

Audio-visual aids, audio-visual media, audio-visual material, communication technology, educational or instructional media, extension teaching aids, extension tools, extension aids, etc, - all these terms broadly speaking, mean the same thing. The use of the terms like educational technology or instructional technology instead of extension tools/aids in the recent time is primarily due to the dynamic expansion of programmed learning, computer assisted instruction and education television. In this discussion, the term audio-visual aid is used most frequently which is almost same as extension aids.

Introduction

Audiotex is a voice response application that allows users to enter and retrieve information over telephone. Example Interactive Voice Response System (IVRS). Audiotex is a generic name for interactive voice response equipment and service. Audiotex connected with a telephone is like a data processor connected to a data terminal. They are passive service which provides through appropriate access by standardised procedure for the user of Audiotex service to communicate with database via telecom network (i.e.) a subscriber can retrieve the information at any time by interacting with the audio service equipment by using the existing telephone line.

Audiotex is essentially a content provider. It enables the subscribers to record their message in a computer memory area called a “Mail Box”. The recorded message can be retrieved by the recipient by dialling a telephone number. Audiotex service is a telecommunication system which enables a caller, by dialling a designated telephone numbering beginning with ‘1800’ to receive a recorded announcement or to interact with a programme whereby he/she may communicate by means of a dual tone multi frequency telephone key pad, a touch tone telephone or other similar device with a value added network connected to the public switched telephone system for purposes of sending or receiving information. However, there are differing views across the world on what constitutes “Audiotex service”. European Telecommunications Standards Institute in its ETSI technical report 131 (June 1994) on “Terminal Equipment(TE); An investigation into the need for standardization in the area of stored voice services” has commented that “ It can be seen that there are many differing views as to what constitutes an Audiotex service and, in formal usage (e.g. in lectures or articles on the subject), a distinction is always drawn between voice messaging and the other services (information, consultation, transaction, etc.). It is thus misleading to use the word Audiotex without a previous definition. Therefore, in many countries the term “stored voice service” is used to describe Audiotex and each separate application and service is distinguished by a more precise definition.

ABSTRACT
India’s agricultural exports play a pivotal role in driving economic growth, enhancing rural livelihoods, and generating employment. The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development (APEDA), establishedunder the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, has significantly contributed to the augmentation of India’s agri-exports through strategic interventions. This chapter explores APEDA’s multifaceted initiatives, including quality control, infrastructure development, product diversification, and digital innovations such as paperless systesm, mobile apps, and virtual trade fairs. Notable efforts include the promotion of Geographical Indication (GI) products, expansion of Agri-Export Zones (AEZs), and international marketing of millets during the International Year of Millets (IYOM 2023). APEDA’s Market Access Initiative (MAI) and Agri- Exchange portal have facilitated global trade linkages, while collaborations with institutions and FPOs have strengthened grassroots connections. Recent achievements include surpassing USD 19.69 billion in agri-export value in 2022- 23 and expanding to over 200 countries. This comprehensive engagement reflects APEDA’s central role in branding Indian agriculture on the global stage and positioning India as a reliable exporter of high-quality food products.
Keywords: APEDA, Geographical Indications (GI), Market Access Initiative (MAI), Virtual Trade Fair and International Year of Millets (IYOM)

Augmentation strategies are generally used as a way to improve the effectiveness of passive or active frost protection methods. As the intensity of the frost is quite variable and sporadic in nature, simple application of the protection methods is not always helpful in giving adequate protection against freezing stress. 

Nutrition affects the development of human body immune system, playing a vital role in modifying the threat of exposure and susceptibility to infectious patho gens, acuteness of morbidity and success of treatment. Keeping in view the pres ent pandemic and emerging viruses such Eastern Equine Encephalitis, Hantavi ruses, Nipah viruses for which no effective preventive and curative treatment is in hand, a healthy immune system could be one of the most important defences to f ight off (El-Gamal et al., 2011). Vegetables are rich source of essential vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and dietary fibres; however, certain vegetables hold more significance in view of boosting immunity.

Introduction

For many years, it has been acknowledged that “augmentative” or “inundative” biological management can decrease arthropod pests (DeBach, 1964). The goal of increased biocontrol is to bring about behavioral and numerical changes in the natural enemies that live within agricultural environments. This tactic calls for the large production of natural enemies as well as their periodic release, to maximize their potential for reproduction during the growing season. For instance, the use of augmentative releases may be required if naturally occurring populations of parasitoids or pests are either nonexistent, do not successfully colonize fields or orchards, or colonize at a point in the season that is too late to provide effective pest control. The increase is being carried out to establish a population of natural enemies capable of keeping the number of pests at economically hazardous levels until harvesting time.

Biological Control

Controlling problems caused by things like mites, insects, weeds, and plant diseases with the help of other organisms is called biological control or biocontrol. It uses natural mechanisms like predation, parasitism, herbivory, and so on, but human intervention is almost always present.

Parasitoids

The term “parasitoid” refers to a group of insects, the larvae of which develop on or within the bodies of other insects, which the parasitoid kills eventually. The phenomenon is known as parasitism. The vast majority of parasitoids are classified as either wasps (Hymenoptera) or flies (Diptera). These insects are numerically quite abundant and play a significant role in almost every terrestrial environment.

The Preamble of the Indian Constitution promises to all citizens of India social and economic justice apart from political justice and also equality of status and opportunity¹. Although every citizen in India who is more than eighteen years of age, including farmers and agricultural workers have got political justice in as much as they have a right to vote and also contest in elections to the State Legislative Assembly and to the Houses of Parliament, we have not been able to give them social and economic justice, and equality of status and opportunity mainly because they continue to earn income, which are not enough to take care of the essential needs of the family such as food, clothing, shelter, education, health, recreation etc. When the Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of India on November 26th 1949, agricultural land was owned by Zamindars and big landlords, and most of the agriculturists were working on their land either as tenants or as agricultural workers. Consequently, most of the citizens of rural India did not own agricultural land and had very little earnings either as tenants or as agricultural workers. 

Youth constitute a numerically dominant potential, resourceful and adventurous segment of the population in India. The share of population between age group 0-14 years dropped from 43% in 1971 to 41% in 1981, however the share of population age 65 has been fairly stable at 3% since 1971. In 1991, youth population in India with the age group of 15 to 35 years was around 31 per cent (246 millions) of the total population.  Out of this total youth population, 20 per cent (53 millions) were urban youth, while the remaining 80 per cent (211 million) were rural (Shivalingaiah, 1995). According to 2001 census, India had a total youth population of 347 millions (i.e. 35.2 per cent of the total population), out of which, about 70 per cent were rural youth and the remaining 30 per cent were urban youth. Since major segment of this population are being lived in the rural areas, they are considered as the nation builders of tomorrow. This important section of the rural population can respond to the needs of country only if they are offered fruitful opportunities for growing up as useful citizens. Today unemployment is a major problem among the rural youth which forced them to migrate from rural areas to urban areas. Indian villages are, therefore undergoing major transformation causing perceptible changes in aspirations of the rural masses, especially the youth. These aspects have been dealt in greater detail in some papers (Sharma, 2006).

Definition

The animal reacts to its own tissue (endogenous antigen) to incite production of antibodies or sensitized lymphocytes. There is breakage of tolerance to the self-proteins.

• Autoimmune diseases are prevented by elimination of sensitized T and B lymphocytes by the process of apoptosis in the thymus and bone marrow during development (Central tolerance; clonal deletion), in the peripheral tissues (Peripheral tolerance) and clonal anergy (Clonal avoidance) by defective presentation of cells.

• The tolerance of CD4+ TH cells is critical in preventing autoimmunity.

• Two major autoimmune diseases are thyroiditis and haemolytic anemia. Other conditions are rare in animals

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What is the definition of sequestered antigens ?
Ans.     Sequestered antigens are antigens which are protected from the immune system and no immune response is generated against them. Ex lens and uveal proteins of the eye, chondrocyte antigens in cartilage and antigens of spermatozoa.

Q.2.     What is autoimmune haemolytic anaemia ?
Ans.    It is an antibody mediated autoimmune disease and antibodies are generated against self RBCs. It occurs in unmatched erythrocyte antigen in transfusion or in erythroblastosis fetalis. The antibodies developed in autoimmune haemolytic anaemia are of two types (1) warm autoantibodies (2) cold agglutinins. The warm

One of the characteristics of the immune system is to recognize and discriminate self from the non-self antigens.  But, sometimes, there is a failure to discriminate between self and non-self antigens in the body and an autoimmune response occurs. Body starts producing antibodies against its own cells/antigens. These antibodies are called autoantibodies and this state is called autoimmunity.

One of the characteristics of the immune system is to recognize and discriminate self from the non-self antigens. But, sometimes, there is a failure to discriminate between self and non-self antigens in the body and an autoimmune response occurs. Body starts producing antibodies against its own cells/antigens. The self antigens against which the immune system responds are called autoantigens and the antibodies produced against self antigens are called autoantibodies.

A mill is a device that breaks solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting. Such communition is an important unit operation in many processes. There are manydifferent types of mills and manytypes of materials processed in them. Historically, mills were powered by hand (e.g., via hand cranks) working animals (horsemill), wind (wind mill) or water (watermill). Today they are usually powered by electricity and are controlled by computer (automatic mills).

The grinding of solid matters occurs under exposure of mechanical forces that trench the structure by overcoming of the interior bonding forces. After the grinding, thestate ofthesolid is changed:thegrain size, thegrain size disposition and the grain shape.

Milling also refers to the process of breaking down, separating, sizing, or classifyingaggregatematerial. For instance rock crushingor grindingto produce uniform aggregate size for construction purposes, or separation of rock, soil or aggregatematerialforthe purposesofstructural fillor land reclamationactivities. Aggregate milling processes are also used to remove or separate contamination or moisture from aggregate or soil and to produce “dry fills” prior to transport or structuralfilling.

Grinding may serve the following purposes in engineering: • Increase of the surface area of a solid

• Manufacturing of a solid with a desired grain size

Automatic microclimate monitoring in greenhouses utilizes sensors and control systems to gather and analyze data on environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, light, and soil conditions. This data is then used to adjust and regulate the greenhouse environment, ensuring optimal conditions for plant growth. By maintaining ideal climate parameters, this system enhances crop production efficiency and supports sustainable farming practices.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF A GREENHOUSE ENVIRONMENT
Various factors influence the environment inside a greenhouse, with heat, humidity, light levels, and ventilation being some of the most important. Achieving the right balance of these factors is crucial for maximizing crop yields. For example, efficient air circulation promotes better plant growth, ensuring higher productivity.
Let’s now take a closer look at the main components of a greenhouse environment:
Light
The right amount and quality of light are essential for photosynthesis, which supports proper plant growth. IoT-enabled sensors can monitor light levels inside the greenhouse and adjust artificial lighting to complement natural sunlight, ensuring optimal conditions for the crops.
Air Quality
Air quality plays a crucial role in plant development. The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO?) and oxygen (O?) must be carefully regulated. IoT sensors can measure these gases and adjust ventilation systems in real-time to maintain optimal levels for healthy plant growth.

21.1 Automatic Weather Station

Automatic Weather Station, popularly known as AWS, is an electronic device and an automated version of the traditional weather station. Numerous weather sensors are connected to the system which automatically records and stores weather data. It is quite useful in remote areas where no frequent access is possible. The system requires hardware as well as software to log in, store, display, retrieve and analyze the data. The digital data recorded from AWS can be downloaded to the laptop through the memory device. The same digital data can be converted to the actual values indicating various weather parameters through the software provided along with the AWS. It should be also maintained in the desktop of PC/AT so that the data are doubly assured. Every AWS has its own software depending upon the manufactures. Time interval can be fixed for recording weather data depending upon the purpose since it is a continuous recorder. Continuous AWS data are integrated at hourly or half-hourly interval for monitoring weather data, otherwise enormous data are continuously stored and no way are used. Of course, continuous weather display is possible for monitoring weather conditions spatially and temporarily.

Automatic Weather Station consists of a datalogger, rechargeable battery, telemetry (optional) and the meteorological sensors with an attached solar panel. The system may report in near real time via GPRS or save the data for later recovery. Majority of automatic weather stations possesses normally Thermometer Sensor for measuring temperature; Anemometer for measuring wind speed; Wind vane for measuring wind direction; Hygrometer for measuring relative humidity; Barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure; Rain gauge for measuring rainfall and Pyranometer for measuring solar radiation. Automatic weather stations are based around a programmable datalogger that measures the sensors, then processes, stores, and transmits the data. Dataloggers have wide operating temperature ranges, on-board instructions, programmable execution intervals and input channels for commonly used sensors. Wind vector, wet bulb, histogram and sample on maxima or minima are standard in the datalogger instruction sets. Most sensors can be measured directly without external signal conditioning. Data are typically viewed and stored in the units of your choice(e.g., wind speed in mph, m/s, knots). Measurement rates and data recording intervals are independently programmable, allowing calculation of 15 minute, hourly, and daily data values from 1 minute or 1 second measurements, for example. Conditional outputs, such as rainfall intensity and wind gusts, can also be recorded. The program can be modified at any time to accommodate different sensor configurations or new data processing requirements.

Protected structures such as cloches, low tunnels, greenhouses, livestock housing, aquaculture facilities and phytotrones provide varying degrees of climate control for agricultural production. While cloches and low tunnels provide only passive modification of the growing environment, all other protected structures have the possibility of active and precise growing environment control.

GREENHOUSE TECHNOLOGY

Greenhouse technology permits the management of both biotic and abiotic stresses related to plant growth to maximize the productivity and quality. Resultantly, profitability per unit area per unit time increases by two to three orders of magnitude as compared to open field cultivation. Introduction of greenhouse technology in India for commercial production is only about three decades old, whereas it is more than two centuries old in USA, UK, Holland, France, Italy, etc.

A greenhouse is a framed or inflated structure covered with a transparent or translucent material where plant environment could be, at least partially controlled and which is large enough to permit a person to enter and carry out cultural operations. A greenhouse is called a glasshouse, when covered with glass, and plastic house when plastic is the glazing material. Materials of construction and cropping activities are also used to identify greenhouses. In addition to the growing facility, a commercial greenhouse complex has a head house, an input storage and a sales area. All these components are so arranged that unwanted movements of man and material are obviated.The greenhouse complex should have adequate wind breaks on the upstream side of the wind direction to provide protection against heavy winds.

Abdominal part

The sympathetic trunks enter the abdominal cavity between the psoas minor and the crus of the diaphragm of the corresponding side. They run caudally on the ventrolateral surfaces of the lumbar vertebrae and the ventral common vertebral ligament. The left trunk is ventrally related to the abdominal aorta and the right trunk to the caudal vena cava. The sympathetic trunks of the opposite sides in the cranial half of the lumbar part lie rather close to each other and as they pass caudally, they gradually divert from each other. The lumbar sympathetic ganglia are small spindle shaped usually six in number and are present one in each lumbar segment. The first two are larger than the rests. Each is connected with the ventral division of the corresponding lumbar spinal nerve by the ramus communicans. The interganglionic segments of the sympathetic trunk are usually single but some times they split.

Splanchnic nerves

The greater (major) splanchnic nerve is formed by the contribution of sympathetic nerve fibres from fifth or sixth thoracic to thirteenth thoracic sympathetic ganglia. It becomes larger and larger as it passes caudally along with the sympathetic trunk. It enters the abdomen at the level of the first lumbar vertebra gets separated from it, passes ventrally and laterally across the aorta (left trunk) and vena cava (right trunk) to join the coeliacomesenteric autonomic plexus on and around the coeliac and cranial mesenteric arteries.

2.1. Radio

A popular communication medium

2.1.1. Historic features

In India, Madras Presidency Club pioneered radio broadcasting in 1924.

Due to financial difficulties, gave it up in 1927.

In 1927, businessmen in Bombay started Indian broadcasting Company with stations at Bombay and Calcutta.

But, failed in 1930.

Previous Year Questions

1. No questions were asked in past 10 years

Availability of Foodgrains

• Net availability of foodgrains = Gross Production (-) seed, feed & wastage, (-) exports imports (+/-) change in stocks.

Introduction

According to an estimate by World Health Organization (WHO), about one million cases of pesticides poisoning and 20, 000 deaths occur every year due to pesticide residues in food chain including cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, oils, milk and milk products (including mother’s milk), fishes, poultry, meat and water. At global level, chemical pesticide worth US$ 30 billion is being used annually for the management of diseases and insect pests. In spite of this, epidemics of diseases, infestations of insect pests and colonization by weeds results in significant losses in agriculture production worldwide. As a result of crop improvement programs to incorporate resistance to pests, devastations epidemics and infestations are rare. Nevertheless, pests continue to exert a heavy toll in terms of yield losses. The last global estimate of yield losses due to pests, made crops like rice, wheat, maize, cotton, soybean, barley and coffee were equivalent to approximately US $ 250 billion annually during the period the period 1989-1990 (Table 1). Since these eight crops occupy only half of the global cropped area, yield losses due to all pests on all crops would be much high. The estimates indicate that 42 per cent of the total global attainable production of the eight major crops is lost due to pests, of which 16, 13 and 13 per cent losses are due to insects, diseases and weeds, respectively. Post harvest losses are estimated to cause an additional 10 per cent loss. Developing countries incur higher losses than industrial countries. (Table 2).

The hot water soluble method is the most common method to estimate available B content in soil

Reagents

1. Azomethine-H: Dissolve 0.45 g azomethine-H and 1.0 g L-ascorbic acid in about 100 ml de-ionized or redistilled water. If solution is not clear, it should be heated gently on water bath at about 30ºC till it dissolves. A fresh solution should be prepared every week and kept in a refrigerator.
2. Buffer solution: Dissolve 250 g ammonium acetate in 500 ml de-ionized or redistilled water. Adjust the pH to about 5.5 by slowly adding approximately 100 ml glacial acetic acid, with constant stirring.
3. EDTA reagent (0.025 M): Dissolve 9.3 g EDTA in de-ionized or redistilled water and makes the volume up to 1 litre.
4. Standard Boron solution: Dissolve 0.571 g boric acid (H₃BO₃) AR grade in a small volume of deionized water and make volume to 1000 ml to obtain a stock solution of 100 mg B/L.

Estimation of organic carbon in soil (Walkley and Black, 1934)

Principle: Soil organic carbon is oxidized to CO₂ by heat of dilution obtained when a known amount of soil is treated with excess of standard K₂Cr₂O₇ in the presence of concentrated H₂SO₄. The excess of K₂Cr₂O₇ not reduced by the organic matter is back titrated with standard ferrous ammonium sulphate in the presence of phosphoric acid or sodium fluoride using diphenyl indicator. At the point colour changes from violet to blue or bright green.

Apparatus: 500 ml conical flasks, Pipettes of 10 and 20 ml, Burette, Balance, Measuring cylinder, Asbestos sheet.

In this method, plant available sulphur (S) is extracted with 0.15% CaCl₂ and the soluble sulphate is estimated on a colorimeter.

What is the use of several trees grown in the forest? A single tree by the way side is far better where under people can rest (Vrikshayurveda).

The towns and villages are made more healthy, more beautiful and more efficient by well planned streets with avenue planting. There is no doubt that, an impressive avenue gives any property the special distinction that it desires. In the past, Emperor Ashoka and Mughal rulers paid attention to roadside planting. Avenue trees primarily provide shade and act as windbreaks, weather conditioners-by purifying and humidifying the air, check radiation of heat and obstruct glare, limit noise and enhance the beauty of the street where they are planted. Roadside planting has two aspects; beauty and utility and both these aspects should be combined. This requires a thorough knowledge of plant material and imagination in planning.

What is the use of several trees grown in the forest? A single tree by the way side is far better where under people can rest (Vrikshayurveda).

The towns and villages are made more healthy, more beautiful and more efficient by well planned streets with avenue planting. There is no doubt that, an impressive avenue gives any property the special distinction that it desires. In the past, Emperor Ashoka and Mughal rulers paid attention to roadside planting. Avenue trees primarily provide shade and act as windbreaks, weather conditioners-by purifying and humidifying the air, check radiation of heat and obstruct glare, limit noise and enhance the beauty of the street where they are planted. Roadside planting has two aspects; beauty and utility and both these aspects should be combined. This requires a thorough knowledge of plant material and imagination in planning.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a discipline of computer science that now days affecting evary aspect of day to day life. It has the potential to greatly improve animal breeding programs in India by providing more accurate and efficient selection methods. Some of the avenues and possibilities of using AI in animal breeding in India includes Predictive analytics: AI can be used to develop optimization models that take into account a variety of factors, such as genetics, phenotypic traits, and environmental conditions, to identify the best breeding strategies. AI can be used to analyze large amounts of data on animal genetics, phenotypic traits, and environmental factors to predict the likelihood of an animal producing offspring with desired traits. This can help breeders make more informed decisions about which animals to be selected for breeding. AI algorithms can be trained to accurately identify diseases in animals by analyzing imaging data, such as X-rays and MRI scans, as well as blood and tissue samples which in turn facilitate veterinarians to make more accurate diagnoses, improving treatment outcomes. AI can also improved feed efficiency by analyzing the feed consumption and nutrient utilization data to identify patterns and trends that can be further utilized to improve feed efficiency, reduced feed costs and increased production efficiency.

Flowers symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. These are intricately associated with social beliefs and no social function is complete without the use of flowers; especially in a country like India, where it is a popular saying that flowers are associated with man from birth till death. Floriculture can be defined as a specialized branch of horticulture which deals not only with the cultivation of flowers, foliage, climbers, trees, shrubs, cacti, succulents, etc., but also with their marketing and production of value-added products from them.

Floriculture is increasingly regarded as a viable diversification from the traditional field crops due to higher returns per unit area and increasing habit of “saying it with flowers”. Flowers play a cardinal role in human behaviour and culture, bringing tranquility and peace of mind. From a symbol of love, flowers have transformed into an industry, generating both income as well as employment. India is blessed with a diversity of agroclimatic conditions prevailing in different regions of the country ensuring production of almost all the ornamental crops through out the year. Floriculture in India is a dynamic and expanding industry recording impressive annual growth rate.

The floriculture industry comprises of:

1. The florist trade traditional and contemporary cut flowers and cut foliage, both fresh and dried and value-added products like bouquets, floral baskets, flower arrangements and garlands.
2. The plant nursery for propagation and supply of plant material including tissue culture plants, seeds, bulbs, corms and other propagated material.
3. Plant rental service for supply of house plants on annual rent for a specific period.
4. Flower perfume and gulkand.

As a result of political changes in India, many entrepreneurs are changing to floricultural activities, which have become a high priority for the Indian government. Due to availability of sufficient winter and summer sunshine, high temperature, good soil fertility, good water quality, different climatic zones for different type of products and low labour and investment costs, India has great potential for floriculture. In the flower industry, significant changes are occurring in the competitive relationships worldwide. European integration, democratization in eastern Europe and the liberalization of world trade in the context of the GATT negotiations will have consequences on international trade. A number of traditional markets are displaying signs of saturation while, on the other hand, new countries are trying to get their place on the market. At the same time, we see new developing markets and in some parts of the world (USA, Japan) it is expected that per capita consumption will go up. Enormous genetic diversity, versatile human resources and varied agro-climate offers India unique scope for diversification not explored yet fully.

Livestock farms

The veterinarians can start their own livestock farms with their vast technical knowledge; they can infuse scientific management techniques in their own farms. In the WTO (World Trade Organisation) era, GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices) and SPS (Sanitory and Phytosanitory) measures are of great importance for export of livestock commodities, as the emphasis in international trade is on quality and food safety. If veterinarians start their own scientifically managed livestock enterprise, they can exploit this opportunity. Further, practicing proven scientific management techniques will improve productivity of animals that would lead to overall quantitative and qualitative improvement of livestock sector.

What is an Average ?

The word “average” is used in everyday life to describe where the middle number of a data set is. It’s the typical number you would except to find in a series of numbers. In statistics, the average is called the “arithmetic mean” usually just shortened to the mean. Both the average and the mean use the same formula :

Avg = total sum of all the numbers/ number of items in the set.

In other word, to find the average, add up all of the numbers in the set, and then divide by however many items you have. Let’s say you have 5, 10, and 15. Add them all up to get 5 + 10 + 15 = 30, then divide by 3(the number of items). The answer is 30/3 = 10.

In probability and statistics, you’ll see the following formula used

(AE; Epidemic Tremor; Infectious Avian Encephalomyelitis)

AE is a viral infection of chickens, turkeys, pheasants and cortunix quail characterized in young birds by ataxia progressing to paralysis and, usually, by tremors of the head and neck. Infected adults usually show no signs. AE is world wide in distribution.

• Avian Inflammation

Inflammation is a process which begins following a sublethal injury to tissue and ends with complete healing or death. It is characterized by five cardinal signs. Cardinal signs of inflammation are:

• Redness

• Heat

• Swelling

• Pain

• Loss of function

• Inflammation is beneficial in most of cases expect

• In prolonged or unending process

• In inflammation of immunological origin i.e. hypersensitivity and autoimmunity.

• It provides basic foundation of pathogenesis and pathology.

• It is now said that immunity is the resistance of body, while inflammation is the process by which the immune mechanism are implemented.

• The basis of inflammation remains same be it mammal or birds. For details, one can refer the chapter inflammation and heading in book “Illustrated Veterinary Pathology”. However, there are some differences in reaction in birds which are briefly listed below:

AI is a viral disease affecting the respiratory, enteric or nervous system of many kinds of birds. The most virulent form is an acute, generalized disease characterized in poultry by a short course and extremely high mortality.

Avian influenza (AI) is a listed disease of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) that has become a disease of great concern for both animal and human health. Avian influenza (AI) or 'bird flu' is an infectious disease of birds ranging from a mild to a severe form of illness. It is caused by influenza A virus under the family Orthomyxoviridae. It is an enveloped virus with two types of surface projections haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). The haemagglutinin is a rod shaped homotrimer which agglutinates RBCs and neuraminidase is a mushroom shaped homotetramer which releases the virus from cells because of its sialidase activity. There are 17 different H antigens (H1 to H17) and 10 neuraminidase antigens (N1 to N10). The virus also contains 8 single stranded negative sense RNA segments each of which encodes for a protein. Avian influenza virus is generally limited to poultry but an unprecedented epizootic of avian influenza A (H5N1) that is highly pathogenic has crossed the species barrier in Asia to cause many human fatalities and likely to possess an increasing pandemic threat. Zoonotic potential of AI virus was first recorded in 1997 with hospitalization of 18 people (six died) following the infection with HPAI (H5N1) in Hong Kong. This provided the evidence that HPAI strains of chicken can adapt, multiply and even cause death in affected individuals. So, it is the prime time to create awareness about the HPAI and its transmission to human beings so that necessary precautionary measures can be taken to prevent and control the disease efficiently and effectively.

Etiology: Influenza viruses are under the Orthomyxoviridae family and belong to either influenza A or influenza B or influenza C genus. The virus particles are enveloped with glycoprotein projections having haemagglutinin or neuraminidase activity and contain 8 negative sense single stranded RNA. Influenza A viruses are classified into subtypes based on these two surface antigens, haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N ). The haemagglutinin is a rod shaped trimer which agglutinates RBCs and neuraminidase is a mushroom shaped tetramer which releases the virus from cells because of its sialidase activity. Beneath the lipid envelope there is a membrane or matrix (M) protein which surrounds a helical complex containing the nucleoprotein (NP) and polymerases (PB1, PB2, P) protein. There are also two nonstructural protein (NS) present in the virus. There are 17 haemagglutinin antigen (H1 to H17) and 10 neuraminidase antigens (N1 to N10) present in influenza A viruses. Each RNA strand of AI virus code for at least one protein. The H glycoprotein of influenza virus has two important functions which are imperative for the infectivity of the virus (i) it is responsible for attachment of the virus to the host cell receptors of glycoprotein or gangliosides containing sialic acid. (ii) it possesses fusion activity between the host cell membrane and the virus membrane so that virus genetic material is introduced into the host cell. The glycoprotein is produced as a precursor, HAo which requires post translational cleavage to HA1 and HA2, by host proteases before it is able to induce membrane fusion. Then only the B virus particles becomes infectious. Type A viruses include the avian, swine, equine and human influenza A viruses. The large number of subtypes present in the type A influenza viruses are due to fact that viruses often undergo antigenic shift by the process of genetic reassortment.

Etiology

Intestinal spirochetes colonise the large intestine of avian, swine and humans.

Family spirochaetacae has six genera, of which Borrelia, Serpulina and Treponema have species pathogenic for animals. Avian intestinal spirochetes are grouped in four: Serpulina hyodysenteriae, S. intermedius, S. pilosicoli (Angullina coli) and an unnamed group.

Chicken S. hyodysenteriae is different from porcine one. S. hyodysentriae, Angullina coli and unclassified groups are present in the USA, whereas S.intermedius is in Europe and Australia.

Avian intestinal spirochetes are gram negative, stain brown with silver impregnation techniques and blue in Wright-Giemsa stain. They can be divided in 3 pathotypes 1) severely pathogenic 2) Mildly to moderate pathogenic and 3) subclinical or apathogenic.

LL is a retrovirus-causes, neoplastic disease of semi-mature or mature chickens characterized by a gradual onset in a flock, persistent low mortality and neoplasia of, the bursa of Fabricius (BF) with metastasis to many other internal organs especially the liver, spleen and kidney.

Introduction

From avian species alone approximately 20 mycoplasma serotypes have been isolated and characterised. Out of them, three serotypes (M. gallisepticum, M. meleagridis and M. synoviae) are most typical and pathogenic. A serotype M. iowae causes low hatchability in turkeys. Mycoplasmas are bacteria that lack cell wall and belong to the class Mollicutes. Although they have been considered extracellular agents, scientists admit nowadays that some of them are obligatory intracellular microorganisms, whereas all other mycoplasmas are considered facultative intracellular organisms

Etiology

Avian Nephritis Virus (ANV), an RNA virus is Astro virus under the genus Avastrovirus in Astroviridae family. Strains of ANV exist. ANV is very resistant and stable in the environment.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why ducks are highly susceptible to aflatoxicosis?

Ans: Ducks are about 200 times more sensitive than broilers and layers. Ducks contain a very high level of enzyme in the livertoconvert aflatoxinB to “aflatoxacol”. Besides, aflatoxin metabolism is 90 times faster in the duck liver than in rat liver.

2.    Why duck should have never access to feed without water?

Ans: Most mashes form a sticky paste when mixed with saliva and adhere to the papillae and other structures bordering the outer margin of the tongue and upper and lower bill. This caking interferes with the movement of the food mass to the tongue resulting in reduction of food intake and increase in feed wastage which occurs when the duck attempts to shake or wash off the mash adhering to its mouthparts.

It is interesting to note that only 25 of about 1200 species of birds found in India have been reported to inflict damage to crops, vegetables and fruits. The exact ecological causes for population increase of individual species have yet to be studied. It would appear that, in general, the granivorous birds became abundant with the increase in area under grain crops and the subsequent storage of grain in godowns and bulk storage. The details of important bird pests are given below:

Poultry sector in India has grown from a backyard activity into a major commercial activity in four and half decades. Poultry is one of the fastest growing subsectors of agricultural sector in India. Within the poultry sector, broiler production is growing faster than egg production and about 66.7% of the total output (in value term) comes from the poultry meat sector and only 33.3% from egg production (FAO, 2008). India ranks fifth in chicken and sixth in duck population. Presently, India is world’s third largest egg producer and the fifth major producer of chicken meat (FAO, 2010). Poultry is today the major source of meat in India. As per an estimate about 2 million people are employed, fully or partly, along the poultry value chain and that an increase in annual per caput availability of one egg or 50 gm or poultry meat generates about 20,000 to 25,000 full time jobs (Ciamarra & Otte, 2009). Distribution of chicken and duck population as well as poultry meat and egg production among different regions, countries of the world and among different Indian states has been already discussed in chapter one of this book.

Introduction

Avian salmonellosis is the term used to describe a large group of acute or chronic diseases caused by one or more members of the bacterial genus Salmonella, which is a member of the large family Enterobacteriaceae. Domestic poultry is known to constitute the largest single reservoir of Salmonella organism existing in nature. They include host specific and nonmotile members of the genus S. enterica subspp. enterica pullorum/gallinarum. If the infection of poultry is due to other Salmonella organisms other than Salmonella enteric subspp. enterica gallinarum/pullorum, the infection is then referred to as paratyphoid.