eChapters

Human communication rarely depends on a single information modality. People simultaneously interpret language, images, sounds, gestures and contextual signals to understand their surroundings. Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) seek to reproduce this capability by integrating text, vision and speech within unified computational frameworks. This chapter introduces the evolution and technological foundations of multimodal intelligence and explains how different data modalities can be aligned through shared representations. It examines the architectural components, training paradigms and evaluation methods used to develop multimodal systems. Applications are discussed across healthcare, autonomous systems, education, accessibility, conversational interfaces and intelligent assistants. For example, healthcare applications can combine electronic health records, spoken clinical interactions and medical images to provide richer contextual understanding. Similarly, autonomous vehicles can integrate visual road information, spoken instructions and textual navigation data. The chapter also considers challenges involving multimodal alignment, computational requirements, data quality, hallucination, interpretability and safety. It concludes by highlighting future research toward more natural, context-aware and human-centered AI systems capable of seeing, listening, reasoning and communicating

Large Language Models have moved beyond experimental research environments and now support conversational agents, coding assistants, recommendation systems and intelligent decision-making applications. However, delivering these services to millions of users requires extremely low latency, high throughput, scalability, security and cost efficiency. This chapter examines the engineering principles required for real-time LLM inference and large-scale deployment. It decomposes end-to-end latency into model execution, network and queuing components and discusses techniques for optimizing each stage. Model-level approaches such as quantization, knowledge distillation, LoRA, QLoRA and speculative decoding are examined for reducing computational requirements while maintaining model quality. At the infrastructure level, tensor and sequence parallelism, GPU and TPU acceleration, efficient batching, autoscaling and cloud-native deployment strategies are considered. Key-value caching and speculative decoding are discussed as important methods for reducing response time in interactive applications. The chapter also addresses privacy, confidential computing, real-time PII protection, energy consumption and monitoring of model performance. Practical deployment examples demonstrate how these techniques can support responsive, secure and efficient AI services at production scale.

The rapid growth of Large Language Models has demonstrated that increasing model size, training data and computational resources can significantly improve performance. This chapter examines the theoretical and empirical foundations of scaling laws and their relationship with optimization strategies used to train and deploy increasingly capable LLMs. It discusses the major scaling dimensions of model parameters, dataset size and computational budget and explains how predictable relationships between these factors influence model development. The chapter considers the foundational work on scaling laws and the subsequent movement toward compute-optimal training approaches. It also examines distributed training, advanced optimization algorithms, memory optimization, data curation, quantization, pruning and efficient inference. Particular attention is given to Mixture-of-Experts architectures, efficient attention mechanisms and inference-aware scaling. The interaction between scaling laws and optimization is presented as a synergistic process in which scaling principles guide resource allocation while optimization techniques improve computational efficiency. The chapter concludes by discussing emerging capabilities, sustainability, hardware requirements and responsible scaling of future foundation models.

Glanders is a contagious, acute or chronic, usually fatal anthropo zoonotic disease of Equidae caused by Burkholderia mallei and characterized by serial development of ulcerating nodules that are most commonly found in the upper respiratory tract, lungs, and skin. The first recorded description of glanders is from the third century from Aristotle. In 1664, glanders was recognized as a contagious disease and in 1830, it's zoonotic potential was suspected. In the late 1800's, the Mallein test (1891) was developed for diagnosis of glanders. By 1910, the U.S., Canada and Great Britain all implemented glanders controlprograms. B. mallei was eradicated from the United States in 1929.

Etiology: It is caused by Burkholderia mallei. It is a straight or slightly bent Gm - non-spore forming, non-motile rod. The organisms in old culture appear as pleomorphic. The organisms can grow in ordinary media but addition of defribinated horse blood or glycerol accelerate the growth. Colonies have hop like odour and slime consistency. The organisms are readily destroyed by direct sunlight and most of the disinfectants. They can survive for 20 days in water and 6 weeks in contaminated stable. This organism is closely related to the agent of melioidosis, Burkholderia pseudomallei.

Susceptible hosts: The most susceptible hosts are horses, mules and donkeys. Infections can also occur in dogs, cats, goats and camels; cats may be particularly susceptible. Hamsters and guinea pigs can be infected in the laboratory. It is an occupational /professional hazard to human being. Laboratory samples are highly infectious to humans. Infection have been observed in sheep and goats. Guinea pigs, rabbits and field mice may be infected fatally. Cattle and pigs are absolutely resistant.

Geographic Distribution: Glanders is seen in some Middle Eastern countries, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, parts of China and Mongolia, and Africa. Sporadic cases are also seen in South America. Sporadic cases of glanders were identified between 1985-86 to 1990-91 from the states of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. Since reemergence of glanders in July - August 2006 in and around Pune and Panchgani area of Maharastra, several cases have been reported among equines of different states viz., Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Punjab. During the year 2006-07, National Research Centre on Equines, Hissar tested 4395 samples and 97 were detected positive and B. mallei was isolated from 8 of these cases.

Nitrogen is an essential plant nutrient and plays a particularly important role in intensively cultivated irrigated systems. This chapter examines nitrogen management in irrigated soils, where assured water availability and intensive cropping can increase nitrogen demand and create significant nutrient losses. The chapter begins with the functions of nitrogen and the forms in which nitrogen occurs in soil, including inorganic and organic forms. Mineralization and immobilization processes are discussed, along with factors affecting nitrogen mineralization and nitrogen transformations under waterlogged conditions. Major pathways of nitrogen loss, particularly volatilization, denitrification and leaching, are examined because they directly influence nitrogen-use efficiency and environmental quality. The chapter discusses different nitrogen fertilizers, including ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, ammonium nitrate and slow-release fertilizers. Nitrification inhibitors and strategies for efficient fertilizer use are also considered. Special attention is given to leaching of urea-N, nitrogen-use efficiency and nitrogen balance in the plant–soil system. The chapter therefore emphasizes balanced nitrogen management for sustaining productivity while reducing nutrient losses

Crop improvement is essential for developing horticultural varieties with superior yield, quality, resistance, and adaptation. This chapter introduces conventional breeding methods such as selection, hybridization, backcrossing, and mutation breeding, along with modern approaches involving molecular markers and biotechnology. Important breeding objectives include disease and pest resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, improved nutritional quality, shelf life, fruit characteristics, and market preference. Modern techniques such as marker-assisted selection, genomic approaches, and genome editing can accelerate the development of improved cultivars. The chapter connects traditional genetic principles with contemporary breeding technologies and explains how integrated breeding strategies can address changing production environments, consumer requirements, and emerging horticultural challenges.

2.1 Audio-Visual Aids Classification

Audio-visual aids are tools that combine auditory and visual stimuli to facilitate learning and improve comprehension. They can make abstract ideas more concrete and understandable. Here's a classification of some commonly used audio-visual aids:

• Audio Aids

• Tape recorders: are tools for teaching that playback sound or music.
• Radio: Programmes can serve as educational resources and audio learning aids.
• Podcasts are digital audio programs or episodes with a focus on learning.

Introduction Papaya fruit is listed under the family Caricaceae. This family has total four genera all over the world. There are about four species found in India under the Carica L. genus. Carica papaya L. is one of the species among them and it is most widely cultivated and very well-known species in India (Kumar and Devi, 2017). It has a thin, little shiny, and green-colored peel which turns into orange colored after ripening. The size of the fruit varies from 5.5 to 5.9 cm in terms of diameter. Papaya has several industrial applications in food processing, pharmaceutical as well as cosmetic industries. According to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2013), India, Indonesia, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Nigeria, and Mexico are the countries that produce the largest number of papayas in the world, India being the largest producer (4457.1 tonnes) followed by Brazil (1859.3 tonnes) in the year 2011.

Abstract

Global consumption of wheat during 2021/2022 marketing year reached to 787.4 million metric tons (https://www.statista.com/aboutus/our-researchcommitment/1239/m-shahbandeh). It shows about 4.4 million metric tons increase from the previous year. With the increase in population a significant increase in wheat production is needed to feed 9.7 billion mouths by 2050. A very limited effort can be directed to increase area under wheat production. Diseases and pests of wheat cause significant reduction (>30%) in production and 11-15% of total post-harvest losses of food grains were reported in India, which equates to about 20 million tonne (Basavaraja et al. 2007) and more than AUD10 million per year (Singh 2010). Thus, saving wheat from diseases can significantly contribute to the 2050 food security goal.

Abstract

The natural color of foods is due primarily to carotenoids, anthocyanins, betanin and chlorophylls, either as inherent food constituents or as food or feed additives. These compounds have drawn considerable attention in recent years, not because of their coloring properties, but due to their potential health-promoting effects. Their occurrence and levels in foods, along with the factors that influence the composition, have been widely investigated. Processing effects have been actively studied. In spite of the intense search for plant and microbial sources and efforts to increase yield, few natural food color additives have reached the market. Developing new colors for the food industry is challenging, as colorants need to be compatible with a food flavors, safety, and nutritional value, and which ultimately have a minimal impact on the price of the product. In addition, food colorants should preferably be natural rather than synthetic compounds. Micro-organisms already produce industrially useful natural colorants such as carotenoids and anthocyanins. Microbial food colorants can be produced at scale at relatively low costs. This chapter highlights the significance of color in the food industry, why there is a need to shift to natural food colors compared to synthetic ones and how using microbial pigments as food colorants, instead of colors from other natural sources, is a preferable option.

Background

GMPK is a large professional services partnership firm comprising over 155,000 professionals with presence in more than 156 countries, providing Audit, Tax & Advisory services to some leading companies and governments around the world. In India, the company has two entities with a total of approximately 20000 employees and partners.

For the last four years, GMPK has ranked as an 'Ideal Employer' on a global index of the world's most attractive employers. The index is based on the opinions of close to 130,000 students from renowned academic institutions across many economies, including the United States, China, Germany, France, the United Kingdom and India. GMPK provides its employees with award-winning diversity initiatives and a formal mentoring program.

1 Analysis of Cream

 Sample Preparation

Warm the cream sample to 40 - 50oC if the sample is very viscous. Then pour from one vessel to another 3 to 4 times to mix well. Sample should be tested daily and always within three days after collection since enzymatic deterioration of the cream will cause low tests.

1.1 Determination of Fat Content in Cream

 1.1.1 Gerber Method

 Introduction

Sulphuric acid is added to cream in order to dissolve the protein and other solids and create heat which liquefy and de-emulsify the fat. Iso-amyl alcohol is added to aid the separation of fat. Upon centrifugation, fat being lighter will be separated on top of solution in the cream butyrometer.

Enzymes (biological catalyst) can be defined as a substance which initiates or fastens the reaction rate, without being consumed during the reaction. Enzymes function as a catalyst in various biological processes taking place in all life forms. Although enzyme synthesis takes place inside living cells, they can even function as a catalyst in the in vitro processes, which makes it suitable for many industrial applications. For product formation in any chemical reaction, reactants or substrates has to overcome the transition state.

Abstract

In biocatalysis, isolated enzymes, enzyme mixtures, immobilized enzymes or microbes (enzymes that are still present within the living cells) are used to perform chemical transformation of organic compounds into novel compounds. Both in academia and across chemical and pharmaceutical industry, biocatalysts are used as isolated preparations or in whole cell format or as recombinant proteins produced in alternate host cells. Biocatalysts catalyze novel small molecule transformations that are usually difficult or impossible using traditional synthetic organic chemistry. Biocatalysts exhibit high chemoselectivity, regioselectivity, diastereoselectivity and enantioselectivity towards their substrates. As a result, the use of biocatalysts during chemoenzymatic synthesis minimizes the issues of unwanted side-reactions such as decomposition, isomerization, racemization and rearrangement. The process of biocatalysis has become an important tool in the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and enantiopure compounds. Biocatalysis offers a more sustainable, efficient, and less polluting methods for the production of APIs and advanced pharmaceutical intermediates. Biocatalysts have received tremendous attention in pharmaceutical industry because they typically catalyze reactions under mild conditions, so they do not consume much energy or emit much greenhouse gas. Biocatalysts are currently employed for the development of products in different fields, such as pharmaceuticals or intermediates of their production (e.g., antibiotics, statins, and enantiopure building blocks), fine chemicals (e.g., amino acids and vitamins), and food ingredients (e.g., sweeteners, lipids, and nutraceuticals). However, it would be helpful for the pharmaceutical industry to take advantage of developments in biochemistry, molecular cloning, random and site-directed mutagenesis, advanced tools for enzyme discovery, enzyme-directed evolution, high-throughput laboratory evolution techniques for biocatalyst optimization, immobilization, and fermentation technology to gain access to a new class of biocatalysts (enzymes), cells and other microbes.

Abstract

Fruits like orange (citrus sinensis), mango (mangifera indica), banana (musa paradisiaca), guava (psidium guajava) and pomegranate (punica granatum) contain numerous vitamins, minerals, fibre. These fruits also contain phytochemicals, antioxidant and bioactive compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponin, terpenoids, which enhance the nutritional value and reduce the free radicals and oxidative stress in human body. These fruits also show the anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-obesity, anti- diabetic, anti-proliferative, anti-hypertensive properties and are very effective against the pathogenic bacteria, which causes the harmful disease in human body. The chapter provides the production data of these fruits in different countries, their bioactive compounds and their utilization in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries.

Abstract

Water is very essential nutrient and total of only 3% pure water is present on earth. Some natural, anthropogenic and human activities discharge wastes, containing heavy metals into the different water resources and ultimately destroying the ecosystem. Numbers of methods are used for water purification like conventional (includes physical and chemical) and biological. Conventional methods are expensive, generate large quantities of sludge and inefficient at low concentrations of metal. Biological method includes biosorption and bioaccumulation, are ecofriendly and economic and have advantages over conventional methods. Biosorbent material includes microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial by-products are used to treat heavy metal from liquid samples. Actually these biosorbent have number of functional groups on their surfaces which help in binding of metal from aqueous solution. In this article, biosorption of zinc, arsenic and copper are described through lactic acid bacteria that are not harmful, nonsporulating, fastidious, fermentative and generally regarded as safe. Many of these species are probiotic and producing exopolysaccharides and biofilms. It has great resistance to survive in gut environment and efficiency to biosorb metal from gut. It has some significant characteristics that represent a useful tool for decontamination of food and beverages from heavy metals. Biosorption mechanism and factors behind the process make these strains competent of removing these heavy metals.

Bone marrow and lymph node aspiration are useful diagnostic procedures for evaluating haematological and lymphoreticular disorders. This chapter introduces practical techniques for obtaining aspirates and emphasizes appropriate selection of anatomical sites and safe sample collection. Bone marrow examination can provide information about cellular production and abnormalities involving erythroid, myeloid and other cell lines. Lymph node aspirates assist in evaluating enlargement, inflammation, infection and neoplastic processes. Proper preparation, sample handling and cytological evaluation are essential for reliable interpretation. The chapter provides practical guidance for incorporating aspirate findings with clinical examination and laboratory investigations to support a comprehensive diagnostic assessment.

Business Plan

A business plan is a comprehensive document that outlines the goals, strategies, and operational details of a business. It serves as a roadmap for the entrepreneur and communicates the business’s value proposition to potential investors, partners, and stakeholders. A well-structured business plan includes sections on executive summary, company description, market analysis, competitive analysis, marketing and sales strategies, organizational structure, product/service description, financial projections, and funding requirements. Creating a business plan not only helps entrepreneurs clarify their vision and goals but also demonstrates a solid understanding of the market and a clear plan for achieving success.

Introduction

In an era defined by unprecedented connectivity and shared global challenges, the assurance of food security emerges as a cornerstone of human welfare and societal stability. At its core, the concept of global food security embodies a delicate equilibrium—wherein the abundant availability, accessibility, utilization, and consistency of nutritious sustenance are assured for all. Yet, this equilibrium remains precariously fragile amidst a confluence of modern predicaments. The imperatives of nourishment transcend mere sustenance; they intertwine with the fabric of public health, economic fortitude, and societal harmony. The imperious need to address food security issues stems from the stark realities it imposes: a profound impact on individual health, the stifling of economic prosperity, and the potential for social unrest. 

Challenge: High Initial Investment

1. Solution: Government subsidies and financial assistance prograAms can be introduced to incentivize farmers to adopt drone technology. Additionally, academia and researchers can collaborate with drone manufacturers to develop affordable and cost-effective drone solutions tailored to the needs of small-scale farmers.
2. Contribution:
   1. Government: Implement subsidy programs and financial incentives.
   2. Academia and Researchers: Conduct studies to identify cost-effective drone technologies.
   3. Industry and Startups: Develop budget-friendly drone models suitable for agricultural applications.

Horticultural crops comprise a diverse group of plants differing in botanical characteristics, growth habits, climatic requirements, economic uses, and production systems. This chapter presents systematic approaches for classifying horticultural crops into fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices, medicinal and aromatic plants, and other specialized groups. Classification based on botanical relationships, life cycle, climate, growth habit, edible parts, and commercial utilization is discussed to provide a practical understanding of crop diversity. Knowledge of classification helps students identify crops, understand their biological relationships, select appropriate production practices, and organize horticultural resources. The chapter establishes an essential foundation for crop-specific management and improvement

In the broadest sense, a network is any interconnected group of people or things capable of sharing meaningful information with one another. In a technology context, the network is usually short for "computer network" or "data network" and implies that computers are the things sharing meaningful information. At a conceptual level, all data networks consist of nodes, which refers to any computer or digital device using the network and links, the physical connections (either wired or wireless) that carry messages between nodes.

Abstract

This chapter examines cost concept, which refers to the sacrifice made by the producer in the form of payments, such as wages for laborers, rent for tractor and land use, and expenses for raw materials, etc. Furthermore, it explains seven cost concepts and CACP cost concept with graphical presentation

Sustainability

Sustainability is a complicated concept. The most often cited definition comes from the U.N. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED): “Sustainable development is the development that fulfills the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their requirements.” Hence, sustainability has been defined as meeting our own needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Introduction

Rice straw is produced as a by-product of rice production at harvest. Agricultural Waste Burning (AWB) is a major contributor of air pollution in many countries, particularly in South Asia. Exposure to fine particulate matter less than 2.5 μm (micrometer), also known as PM 2.5, released by AWB can cause premature mortality due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Brauer et al.,2012). Combine Harvesters used on the spring rice crop leave behind stubble and straw on the field (Sidhu et al., 2007). Farmers burn the rice residue while preparing the field for wheat sowing season that follows. Further, migrant labour from neighbouring states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh has decreased (Sirhindi, 2019), and resulted in an increase in the cost of agricultural labour during the rice harvest season (Sharma,2018). Farmers find it both convenient and economical to burn residue to clear and prepare their fields for the next crop. In 2018, over 20 million metric tons of rice residue was generated in Punjab, of which almost 10 million metric tons was subject to open-air burning (MoA, 2019). The time window between rice harvesting and wheat sowing is just 20 to 30 days towards the conclusion of the Kharif season, which is one of the primary reasons of crop waste burning (Balwinder et al., 2016).

Answer Inflammatory or Not

• If yes it is non-neoplastic or inflammatory
• If no, consider neoplastic conditions
• Certain non-neoplastic conditions may not show inflammatory cells (Haematoma, cystic fluid, epidermal/dermal cysts)
• Inflammation or non-neoplastic condition is characterized by a mixed population of cells including neutrophils, lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils, macrophages, epithelioid cells and giant cells.
• Inflammatory reactions often result in hyperplasia of surrounding tissues.
• If not inflammatory, it may be neoplastic.

Introduction

In the evolving landscape of agriculture, where feeding a rapidly growing global population is a pressing concern, the role of data analytics has emerged as a beacon of hope, igniting revolutionary transformations in optimizing crop yields and resource utilization. Data analytics, the science of examining raw data to uncover insights and make informed decisions, has transcended conventional farming practices, propelling the industry towards a new era of efficiency, sustainability, and productivity.

Definition

Entrepreneurship refers to the process of identifying, creating, and pursuing opportunities to develop new products, services, or processes, often involving innovation and risk-taking. It involves the willingness to take calculated risks in order to capitalize on these opportunities. Entrepreneurs are individuals who exhibit a unique mindset, combining creativity, resourcefulness, and resilience to bring their ideas to fruition. Entrepreneurship can manifest in various forms, including starting a new business, introducing novel products to the market, or even implementing innovative strategies within an existing organization. It is a dynamic and evolving concept that plays a vital role in driving economic progress and societal development.

Democracy is a system of government in which power is held by the people, either directly or through elected representatives. It is a form of government that allows for the free and fair participation of citizens in the decision-making process of the country. In a democratic system, all citizens have the right to vote and participate in the political process, and the government is accountable to the people. Key features of democracy include a free press, an independent judiciary, and the protection of individual rights and freedoms. While there are many variations of democracy, the basic principles include equality, freedom, and the rule of law.

Introduction

"Research is the systematic approach to obtaining and confirming new and reliable knowledge." It is a systematic and orderly (following a series of steps). Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable. Thus research is:

1. Searching for explanation of events, phenomena, relationships and causes

• What, how and why things occur
• Are there interactions?

2. A process

• Planned and managed - to make the information generated credible
• The process is creative
• It is circular - always leads to more questions

Abstract

Starch is an important plant-based product and an abundant biomaterial, used worldwide for different purposes in many industrial sectors including food, health, chemical and engineering sector. Starch versatility in industrial applications is largely defined by its physicochemical properties and functionality. Starch in its native form has limited functionality and application but advancements in technological processing have led to the wide-range modification of starch for different purposes. It can be easily degraded by microorganisms hence is a natural source of bioenergy in the form of bioethanol and biohydrogen as well as in the development of biodegradable packaging materials. Various technological interventions can significantly improve the characteristics of native starch and be tailor-made to the specific needs of the packaging and food industry. Native starch can be treated by various methods to modify its characteristics. Modification improves starch paste clarity, viscosity, syneresis and freeze-thaw stability leading to a wide range of food applications. Esterification lowers gelatinization temperature and retrogradation lowers the tendency to form gel and higher paste clarity which shows applications in refrigerated and frozen foods, as emulsion stabilizers and for encapsulation. Cross-linking increases the stability of granules towards swelling, high temperature, high shear, and acidic conditions. Starch-based nano-composite polymers have their application in coating and packaging of food as well as non food commodities. Techniques involving extrusion, casting, spinning, and nanotechnology can be used in the production of films, foams, and nanocomposite materials. Due to the unique characteristics of resistant starch, it is being used as a valuable supplement in the formulation of drugs, pharmaceuticals, various functional foods and in the microencapsulation of probiotics and bioactive compounds.

Regular deworming of cattle including young stock is essential for economic rearing as sever parasitic infection leads to reduced feed intake, decreased reproductive performance, lower milk production, decreased growth rate and increased incidence of diseases. So, deworming as per scientific schedule and dose rate is a must for animals to keep away these profit eating parasites.

Abstract

Dietary fibre concentrates (DFC) are the major component of fruit by-products generated during the processing at commercial level. These are the blessings for human gut health along with many other positive health benefits. Fruit by-products are the so-called nuisance for the environment that enfolds numerous positive signs inside. Lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin, waxes, mucilage’s, oligosaccharide, gums and many other associated compounds are the part of DFCs. These DFCs when taken in the form of functional ingredient reaches to the colonic microbiota and consequently provides them a healthy growth medium that promotes the cell metabolism upto 67%, enhances the growth of good gut bacteria like Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. This article enlightens the content of DFCs in various fruit by-products that shows their prebiotic potential.

Aim: To verify the relationship between the input and output voltage for 3-phase transformer connection in various ways:

A 3-phase transformer can be considered as a set of 3 single-phase transformer bank or as single unit of 3 phase windings. Since three winding are available in both primary and secondary side then there can be different types of connections and so far, different characteristics.

There are many types of intellectual property and its type varies from country to country. The most common types are patents, copyrights, trademarks, design and trade secrets. Intellectual property is an intangible creation of the human intellect and this intangible nature of intellectual property faces problems in comparison of traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is not dividable therefore a number of people can consume an intellectual good without its consumption. In addition, investments in intellectual goods suffer from appropriation problems, for instance Landowners can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but creators of intellectual property cannot do that to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price.

Enzymes, toxins, growth regulators, and polysaccharides are much more common and perhaps more important in the development of plant diseases. The pathogen produce these substances when grown on certain substrates (inducible). Let’s talk carefully one by one

Enzymes in plant diseases.

Toxins in plant diseases.

Growth regulator in plant diseases.

Polysaccharides in plant diseases.

Introduction

The foundation of human civilization has traditionally been agriculture, which offers sustenance, economic security, and a strong bond with the land. Nevertheless, although playing a crucial role, the global agricultural sector faces many difficulties, including resource shortages and climate change as well as a fast-expanding population. The empowerment of women and young people in agriculture stands out as a critical answer in this situation, driving not only agricultural sustainability but also promoting social and economic advancement. In agriculture, empowerment refers to the fair inclusion and active involvement of women and young people in all facets of the industry, including leadership and decision-making as well as production and distribution. It admits that despite these groups' enormous latent potential, they have been ignored and underutilized for far too long.

Commercial Building

Commercial buildings consist of government buildings, banks, hospitals, schools, malls, retail, restaurants, and office spaces. Among these, office and retail occupy the major percentage of energy consumption. 

More than 40% of the total final energy consumption and about 30% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are in connection with the civil and residential sector.

Maximum energy consumption in commercial buildings by HVAC system (51% followed by appliances and food service equipment (20%), lighting(12%), electronics and information technology(9%) and water (8%).

Fundamentals of Entrepreneurial Success

Entrepreneurship is a complex journey that requires diverse skills and perspectives. A well-structured team brings together individuals with complementary strengths, fostering innovation and problem-solving. A cohesive team can withstand challenges, provide emotional support, and share the burden of both successes and failures. Furthermore, a united team can attract investors, partners, and customers, as the synergy among team members reflects the potential of the business.

Introduction

India has vast livestock resources. Livestock sector includes animal husbandry, dairy and fisheries sector. Livestock provides livelihood to two-third of rural community and employment to about 8.8 % of the population in India. Livestock sector contributes 4.11% GDP and 25.6% of total Agriculture GDP. It provides milk and milk products, meat and meat products, and also constitutes a major supplier of food and food articles, raw materials, and finished products.

Abstract

Non-structural carbohydrates are the primary product of photosynthesis in plants. Glucose, fructose, sucrose, and so on are examples of Non-structural carbohydrates (NSC). These are free carbohydrates having a low molecular weight that are involved in the creation of structures. Plants’ principal photosynthetic product, the NSC, is involved in metabolic processes and plays a critical role in plant functional characteristics. In a recent laboratory inter-comparison, NSC concentration measurements had very minor uncertainty due to different extraction and quantification techniques. Different techniques such as High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS), Near Infra-red spectroscopy (NIRS), anion exchange chromatography, chemical approaches such as the Anthorn assay approach, and certain kits are used to detect NSC in plants. This review will cover the methods for measuring NSC in plant tissues and attempting to infer its dynamics, as well as how to apply these tools to go beyond simply monitoring plant carbon connections such as “how much NSC is there and where it is located” to “under what conditions and to what extent is NSC used” to support plant function.

Abstract

This chapter explores farm budgeting, a method of evaluating plans for the allocation of agricultural resources at the decision-maker’s level. It involves estimating the income, costs, and profit of different farm activities.

Abstract

This chapter explores farm management, a subfield of economics that addresses decision-making on the organization and operation of a farm. The goal is to secure maximum continuous net income while ensuring the welfare of the farm family.

Abstract

This chapter examines how farm planning can help farmers anticipate and optimize their future activities based on economic principles. It presents a comprehensive farm plan that outlines the enterprises, procedures, labour, investments and other information involved in the farm operation. It demonstrates how farm planning can assist farmers in achieving their objectives, choosing crops, allocating resources, estimating input and credit requirements, and projecting future costs and returns.

Introduction

To address the escalating food demands of the global population, a transformation in the agricultural sector is imperative (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019). The current overdependence on finite resources is leading to their overexploitation, largely due to irresponsible usage (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019). By adopting a site-specific approach, farmers can apply inputs only where they are necessary in the field (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019). This method can enhance output, decrease labor costs, and mitigate the environmental damage caused by excessive input use (Velten et al., 2015; Lampridi et al., 2019).

The motive behind conducting the workshop on Capacity Need Assessment and Development is that the existing Extension Advisory Services (EAS) needs new capacities to respond effectively to the emerging challenges in agricultural development.

Floriculture and landscape architecture combine plant production with aesthetics, environmental improvement, recreation, and urban development. This chapter introduces the production, management, post-harvest handling, and marketing of flowers and ornamental plants. It also explains principles of landscape design, including balance, rhythm, harmony, colour, texture, form, space, and focal points. Softscape and hardscape components are considered in the planning of gardens, parks, institutional landscapes, roadsides, and urban green spaces. The chapter highlights the increasing importance of floriculture and landscape plants for urban biodiversity, pollution reduction, temperature moderation, recreation, and human well-being. Modern applications include turf management, green infrastructure, indoor plants, and peri-urban floriculture.

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is one of the most effective methods for determining the functional groups and potential molecular interactions between membrane chemical molecules. Understanding of (infrared) IR absorption band placements in the spectrum as wave numbers can be used to identify the various chemical constituents (such as aromatic amides) that may not be visible by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.